国际贸易原理与实务资料

1..贸易分类Classification ofinternational trade:Export trade,Import trade,Transit tradeDirect trade,Indirect trade,oEntrepot tradeVisible trade,Invisible trade.o

2.ICC:International ChamberOf Commercial（国际商会）

3.Mercantilism重商:refers to the schoolof economicthought thatcameinto existencein Europeduring the period from1500to

1750.the tradetheory thatstates thatnations shouldaccumulatefinancial wealth,usually in the formof gold,by encouragingexportsand discouragingimports iscalled mercantilism.The mainproblemwith mercantilismis that all countriesengaged inexport butwasrestricted fromimport,another preventionfrom developmentofinternational trade.

4.absolute of advantage绝对优势Adam Smithdeveloped thetradetheory of absolute advantagein

1776.Smith statedthat tariffsandquotas shouldnot restrictinternational trade;it shouldbe allowedtoflow accordingto marketforces.Contrary tomercantilism Smitharguedthat a country shouldconcentrate onproduction of goods inwhichit holdsan absoluteadvantage.No countrywould thenneed toproduceall the goods itconsumed.According to the absoluteadvantagetheory,international tradeis apositive-sum game,because•FOB UnderTackle:FOB吊钩下交货•FOB Stowed:FOB理舱费在内•FOB Trimmed:FOB平舱费在内•FOB Stowedand Trimmed:FOB理舱费和平舱费在内

17.CFR:COST ANDFREIGHT named port of destination成本加运费……指定目的港•Under theCFR term,the sellermust pay the costs and freightnecessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination.Shipment advice转船通知A shipping advice contains•Difference withFOB:The sellerinstead of the buyer isresponsible formaking arrangementof the ship chartering aship orbooking aspaceThe sellers obligation:1Be responsible for bookingthe shippingspace,deliver the goodson board the vessel at the port of shipment on the dateor withintheperiod stipulated.2Give the buyer the shippingadviceat onceafter shipment,so thatthe buyer canarrange forinsurance3bear allrisks of loss of or damage to the goods untilsuch timeasthey have passed the ship s rail at the port of shipment.4clear the goods forexport andprovide exportlicense orotherofficial authorizationfor theexportation of the goods.The buyers obligations:1bear allrisks or damage to the goodsfrom thetime they havepassed theship s rail at the port of shipment.2arrange forinsurance and paythe insurance premium.3accept thedocuments whentendered by the seller,if theyarein conformitywith the contract ofsale,and paythe priceasprovided in the contract.acceptdeliveryofgoodswhen they have beendelivered at thenamed port of destination and bearallchargesaswellasthecostofcarryingoutthecustomsformalitiespayableupon importationofthe goods and,where necessary,for theirtransit throughanothercountry.Special issuesunder CFR•Shipping advice装船通知:A shippingadvice containsthevessel name,the voyagenumber,the sailingdate and the dateofloading.•The purpose:1）to informthe buyeror itsagent tomakepreparation fortaking deliveryofgoods2）to informthe buyertoeffect theinsuranceThe variationsof CFR•CFR LinerTerms（CFR班轮条件）•CFR Landed（CFR卸至码头）•CFR ExTackle（CFR吊钩下交货）•CFR ExShip s Hold（CFR舱底交货）

18.CIF（named port of destination）•COST,INSURANCE ANDFREIGHTthe sellermust paythe costsand freightnecessarytobringthe goodsto anamed portof destination,and mustalso procuremarineinsurance againstthe buyers riskofloss ofor damageto the goodsduringthe carriage.Compared withCFR•CIF is the sameas CFRexcept that the seller is responsibleforeffecting insurance,paying thepremium（保险费）.•（theinsurancerequired undera CIFcontract hasto coverminimumconditions）In general,CIF involvesthe exporterin threecontracts:Contract ofsale;Contract ofinsurance;Contract oftransportation.The sellers obligations under GIF•1providing thegoods•2clearing thegoods forexport•3obtaining exportlicense orother officialauthorizationfor theexportation of thegoods•4charteringaship orbooking aspace•5delivering thegoods onboardthe vesselat the portofshipment onthe dateor within theperiodstipulated andnotifyingthe buyer•6bearing allrisks ofloss ofor damageto thegoods untilsuchtime asthey have passed theship s rail at the portofshipment•7arranging for an insuranceand paying the costsof freightand insurance8Providing the buyer withrelative documentsincludingthe insurancepolicyBuyer s obligationsunderCIF•1bearing alrisks ofloss ofor damageto thegoodsfrom thetime theyhave passedtheshipsrailat the portof shipment•2accepting thedocuments whentendered by the seller,if theyarein conformitywith thecontract ofsale,andpaythe priceasprovided in thecontract•3taking deliveryof thegoods when theyhave been deliveredatthenamedportof destinationandbearing allcharges ofunloadinggoods•4clearing thegoods forimport•5carrying outcustoms formalities for importationof goodsVariationsof CIF•CIF LinerTerms:•CIF Landed:•CIF Ex-Ship,sHold:The useof CIF•CIF ispreferred bybuyer•1it meanstheyhavelittle todo with thegoodsuntil thegoodsarrive attheportofdestinationin theircountry.•2it allowsbuyers tocompare pricesfrom suppliersaroundthe worldwithout havingto takeinto considerationdifferingfreight rates,since the seller paysthe freightandinsurance.•Sellerlike CIFtoo:under thepressure from their government,selleris required to use domesticcarriers andinsurers.

19.比较FOB、CFR、CIF（区别与共同点）©commonalities:a.Under allthe threeterms,the place of deliveryorplace oftransferring risksisthesame,that is,when thegoodspass theships railattheportofshipment;b.Under allthe threeterms,the selleris responsiblefor carrying out exportclearancewhile the buyer isresponsiblefor carrying outimport clearance.©Differences:a.Under FOB,thebuyeris liable for bothcontractingcarriage andtaking out marine insurance;b.Under CFR,the selleris liableforcontracting carriagewhile thebuyerisliable fortaking outmarine insurance;c.the sellerisliablefor bothcontractingcarriage andtakingoutmarineinsurance.

20.为什么CFR中，卖方及时发出装船通知是重要的？As underCFR,thebuyermust takerisks fora periodof carriageduringwhich thebuyer has no meansof controllingor limitingthoserisks.The carrierused,the costsincurred forcarriage andthetiming of the carriageare allunder the seller5s control.Theshipping advicesent playsan importantrole,which isto informthebuyer totake outinsurance promptly.If,however,the sellerfailsto dothis,it willhave to bear therisks ofloss ofor damagetothe goods incurred intransit.

21.FCA=free carriernamed placeSellers Obligations:

1.Responsibilities[A.Deliver thegoodsB.Clear thegoods forexportC.Deliver thegoodsto the carriernamed bythebuyerD.Notifythe buyerimmediatelyE.Deliver thedocuments ofequivalent electronicdata]

2.ExpensesExpenses beforethegoodshavebeendelivered to the carrier.

3.Ri sksUpondelivery to the carrier.If deliveryoccurs atthe sellers premises,the sellerisresponsible forloading.If deliveryoccurs atany otherplace,the selleris notresponsiblefor unloading.

22.CPT carriagepaid to…named placeof destinationCPT=FCA+F国外运费destination CIP=CPT+I（国外保险费）

23.CIP carriageandinsurancepaid to…named placeof

24.methods ofexpressing qualityof commodityin thecontract:saleas seenSale bysample countersample,sealed,reference^oSale bydescription saleby specifications,by grade,standard,〜brand andtrade mark,name oforigin,descriptions andillustrations

25.quantity:

①the systemsof weightsand measuresmetric system,international systemof units,British system,American system

②quantity unitsmetrical units,including weight,length,area;numbers includingsome customaryunits suchas dozen,gross.

③methods ofrcalculating weightnet weight,gross weight,conditioned weight,theoretical weight

26.modes oftransport©Ocean TransportAdvantage:easy passage;large capacity;lowcost///Disadvantage:slow;vulnerable tobad weather;lesspunctual•Types ofShipping Services:1Liner Transport班轮运输Apassenger orcargo vesselthat operatesover aregular routeaccordingto anadvertised time-table.[Features:fixed route,ports,schedule and relatively fixedfreight.0loading andunloading chargesincluded infreight.0simple proceduresand ideal for cargoof smallquantity.]2Charter Transport租船运输.The practiceof payingmoneyto ashipping companytousetheir boats.[Much cheaperthanthat of the liner.Shippers maychoose directroute.Widelyused intransporting bulkcargoes.][voyage charter.Thecharter orhiring ofa vesseland crewfora single voyage.Time charter:The charterofaship fora definiteperiod oftime.]

②Rail TransportAdvantages:Large capacitysecond tooceantransport;Relatively highspeed;Economical;Relatively punctual;Less proneto interruptionsby poorweather///Disadvantages:Confined toraiIroad;Less flexible

③Air Transport:Advantages:High speed;Good quality;Low risk;Competitive insurancepremium;///Disadvantages:High cost;Lowcapacity;Vulnerable todisruption;Sparsely locatedfacilities;[Four categories:Scheduled airlines班机运输Chartered carriers包机运输Consolidated consignmentsby freight forwarders集中托运Air expressservice/desk todesk service航空速递1Scheduled airlines:operating ona scheduledservice,over afixedairline andbetween fixedairports,suitable forconveyingfresh,emergent andseasonal goods.2Chartered carriers:the hireof anaircraft bya shipperorseveral shippersto delivercargoes,idealforcarrying cargoes oflarge quantitiesorcarryingcargoesofdifferent shippersto thesamedestination.3Consolidated consignments:the airfreightforwarderusuallyassembles anumber ofindividual shipmentsinto oneconsignment anddispatchesthem onone air waybill.A consolidatedshipment madeupby severalshipments canbe dispatchedto onecommon destination.Many shippersprefer thiskind ofshipment asthe freightrate is7%-10%lower thanthat ofa scheduledairline.4Air expressservice:the expressservice providedby airfreightforwarders specializingin thisline ofbusiness betweenconsignors,airports andusers,suitable for there aregains forbothcountries to an exchange.

5..Comparative Advantage相对优势:first introducedby DavidRicardoin

1817.The principleof comparativeadvantage statesthata countryshould specialisein producingand exportingthoseproducts inwhich ishas a comparative,or relativecost,advantagecompared withother countriesand shouldimport thosegoods inwhichit hasacomparativedisadvantage.Out ofsuch specialisation,itis argued,will accruegreater benefitfor all.

6.Reasons fortrade restrictions:

①a diversifiedeconomy tobeless dependenton foreigncountries botheconomically andpolitically.

②Protect vitalindustries stabilityand economicdevelopment.©Infant industryargument anew industryneeds tobeprotected untilthe laborforce istrained,the productiontechniquesare masteredandtheoperation becomeslarge enoughtoenjoy theeconomies of scale andtobeable tocompete in the market.©Employment protectdomestic jobs

⑤Pure politicalreasons

7.tariffs关税a tax,or duty,levied ona commoditywhen crossestheboundary ofa customsarea.©According to the methodsused inimposing importduties:urgentlyneeded articlesand importantdocuments]@International Transport:One contract,one transportdocument,one operator,one freightrate;Use ofcontainers[Advantages:High efficiency;Good quality;Cost andtime saving;Economy andsimplicity ofdocumentation

27.Bill ofLading B/L定义A bill of ladingis ashipping documentthatserves asa receiptof thegoods;a documentof title;theevidence of the contractTypes:©Shipped onboard B/L,Received forshipment B/L

②CleanB/L,Unclean B/L

③Straight B/L,Blank B/L,Order B/L©Direct B/L,Transshipment B/L,Through B/L

⑤Liner B/L,Container B/L,CombinedB/L@Long formB/L,Short formB/L©others:On deckB/L,Stale B/L,Ante-dated B/L,Advanced B/LRules:the HagueRules,the Hague-Visby Rulesl968,the HamburgRules

28.other shippingdocuments:sea waybill,airwaybill,multimodaltransport document

29.1nsurance:

1.Perils andrisks:1Perils of the seaNatural calamities:badweather,lightening etc.Fortuitous accidents:being stranded,sinking,etc.2Extraneous risks:General extraneousrisks:theft,breakage etc.Special extraneousrisks:military affairs,war etc.

2.Ocean averageand chargesAverageloss:©Actual totalloss©Constructive totalloss3Particular average

④General average:Extraordinary;Voluntarilyand reasonablymade;In time of peril;Be successful.

⑤Sue andlaborexpenses andsalvage charges©Extraneous losses

30.payment:billofexchange,promissory note,cheque3L Billof Exchange:L定义:a writtenorder bythe drawerto thedraweeto paymoney tothe payee.

2.内容1The wordsof“Billof Exchangeor“Draft2An unconditionalorder inwriting3A sumcertain inmoney;4The Timeof payment;5The nameofthe drawee;6The nameof thepayee;7The dateand placeofissuance ofdraft;8The name and signatureof thedrawer;

3.Usage过程©Issuance:The actof thedrawer issuing a drafttothe drawee©Presentation:a demandto payor acceptthe draftmade tothedrawee3Acceptance:an agreementgenerally onthe partof thedrawee topaythe bill.An acceptedbill shallbe returnedtothepresentingparty@payment

⑤Endorsement:The actof thetransferor intransferringa drafttothetransferee bymaking asignature ontheback of the draft©Dishonor andrecourse:the payerrefuses orfailsto payor acceptthe billwhentheholder makespresentment to him.©protest

4.分类.®trade drafts,banker sdrafts

②Sight draft,time draft

③trade acceptance drafts,banker sacceptancedraft©Clean draft,documentary draft

32.letter of credit1•定义An L/C isthe writtenpromise ofa bankthatacts atthe requestand onthe instructionsof theapplicantand undertakesto paythe beneficiarythe amountspecified in thecredit,provided that the termsand conditions of the credit areobservedbythebeneficiary.

2.内容®Name andaddress of theissuing bank

②Type ofthe credit

③Name andaddress ofthebeneficiary@Amount ofthecreditand itscurrency

⑤Expiry dateofthe creditand itsplace tobe expired

⑥Name andaddress oftheapplicant

⑦L/C numberand dateof issue®Drawer anddrawee aswellas tenorofthedraft

3..过程⑴Agreement tosettlement bya letterofcredit2Application forissuingaletter ofcredit3Openinga letter ofcredit4Notification,transmission orconfirmation ofaletterofcredit5L/C amendment6L/C utilizationandsettlement4•分类

①According tothe attachingof documentsCleanCredit,Documentary credit2According tothe natureof creditRevocablecredit,Irrevocable credit

③According tothe addingofconfirmation confirmedcredit,Unconfirmed credit©According tothetimeofpayment Sightcredit,Usuance ortime credit©Accordingto theways ofavailability sightpayment credit,deferred paymentcredit,acceptance credit,negotiation credit@other credits:revolving credit,Transferable credit,back-to-back credit,redclause credit,standby credit,SWIFT credit

33.commondity inspectionL定义it referstotheexamination ofthe quality,quantity,packing,etc.ofthegoodsintransit fromthe seller tothebuyer.

2.重要性To thebuyer:he wants to makecertainthatthegoods deliveredtohimare exactlythe goodsdescribedbythecontact hehas signedwiththeseller.///to theseller:1He wantsto inspectthegoodsto controlthequalityofgoods soas tomaintainhis imageand developmarket.2He alsowantstoprove withaninspection documentthatthegoods deliveredmeet thecontractterms.

3.Time andplaceofinspection:Inspection atthe factoryorattheportofshipment,attheportofdestination,attheportof shipmentandre-inspection attheportofdestination

4.Typesof inspectionbody:Governmental andnon-governmental inspectionbodies

5.Inspection Standard:Standards

①Mandatory inspection:subject tothe standardsas specifiedin theLaw andthe Regulations.For others,subject tothe standardsagreed uponinthetradecontracts

②If thereis contradictionbetween the standards intheLaw andthe Regulationsand thoseinthecontracts,subject tothehigher one.

③If thestandards arenot specifiedintheLaw andtheRegulations orinthecontract,subject tothestandardsof themanufacturingcountry,or relevantinternational standardsor thestandardsdesignated bythe stateinspection agency.

34.international tradenegotiation L定义Negotiating meanstakingaction inorder toachieve asituation acceptableto bothparties.

2.过程

①Inquiry:enquire aboutthe businessterms andconditionsregarding thegoods.

②Offer:express thewishes oftheselleror buyer©CounterOffer:reject partor totaloftheterm andconditionsofthe offer

④Acceptance:indicates assentcounter-offer.

3.formation of contract:toanoffer orformation ofcontractoffer,acceptance,Specific duty:A tarifflevied asa fixedcharge foreach unit ofimported goods.Disadvantage:Protective valuevaries inverselywiththe priceoftheimport.///Nd valoremduty:Levied asa constantpercentageofthemonetary valueof1unitofthe importedgood.HI Mixedor compoundduty:A dutyplaced onimported items,theamount ofwhich isbased uponthe abovetwo duties.111Alternative血y;Adopting eitherof thesetwo duties©According todifferenttariff rates:Preferential duties:applied accordingto itsgeographicalsource.///generalized preferentialduty:extendedunder theGeneral Systemof Preferences.///MFNduty:a dutyfornations entitledto most-favored-nation treatmentor tradingstatus〃/gexera/duty:a non-MFNT tariff,applied tocountrieswithout MFNTagreement.3According tospecial purposes:CountervailingdutiesCVD:a tariffdesigned tocounter“theeffects ofthe foreignexport subsidy./〃ti-dumping duties:aduty toimports tooffset theeddects of dumping.

8..forms ofnon-tariff barriers©quantity controlmeasuresnon-automatic licence、quota、quantitative safeguardmeasures prohibition、voluntaryexport restraints即VERs;

②price controlmeasuresadministrative pricing、variable charges、antidumping orcountervailing measures;3para-tariff measurescustomssurcharges、additional taxesandchargesinternal taxesand chargeslevied onimports、decreedcustoms valuation;©finance measuresadvancepayment requirements、multiple exchangerates、restrictive officialforeign exchangeallocation、prohibition offoreign exchangeallocation^bank authorization、surrender requirement;

⑤anti-competitive measuressinglechannel forimports、compulsorynational service;@miscellaneous measuresto subsidizeimport-competing industriesgovernmentprocurement policyadministrative classificationtechnicalmeasures.

9..dumping:Dumping isselling exportsataprice that is toolow,less thannormal orfair value.Types:

①.Predatory dumping:driving competitorsout ofbusinessin theforeign country.

②Sporadic dumping:Foreign producershave temporarysurplus thattheyexport atwhatever pricecan get.aCyclical dumping:during periodsof recessiona firmtends tolowerits priceto limitthe declineinthequantity sold,b Seasonaldumping:intended tosell offexcess inventoriesofaproduct3Persistent dumping:when afirm withmarket poweruses pricediscriminationbetween marketsto increaseits totalprofit

10.Unfair competitioncaused by:

①Social dumping:firms indevelopingnations withlower laborcostsandpoorer workingconditions.

②Environmental dumping:acountrys laxenvironmentalstandards.

③Financial servicesdumping:a nationslow requirementsfor bankcapital/asset ratios.

④Culturaldumping:cultural barriersaiding localfirms.IL Conditionsofdumping:

①Such firmmust hasmonopoly power indomestic market.

②Segmented marketsno buyin andsell ata profitbetweendomestic marketand foreignmarket.3Different demandelasticity.

12.types of regional economic integration:©Preferential TradeAreais atrading blocwhich givespreferential accessto certainproductsfrom certaincountries.This isdone byreducing tariffs,but doesnot abolishthem completely.

②Free TradeArea,all barriers tothetrade ofgoodsand servicesamong membercountriesare removed.But eachcountry isallowed todetermineitsowntradepolicieswith regardto nonmembers.©CustomsUnion isone stepfurther alongthe roadto fulleconomic andpoliticalintegration.A customsunion eliminatestrade barriersbetweenmember countriesand adoptsa common external trade policy.©Common Markethasnobarrierstotrade betweenmember countries,includes acommon externaltrade policy,and allowsfactors ofproductionto movefreely betweenmembers.©Economic Unioninvolvesthe freeflow ofproducts andfactors ofproduction betweenmembercountries andadoption ofcommonexternaltradepolicy,but italsorequires acommon currency,harmonization ofmembers taxrates andacommon monetarypolicy,fiscal policy.13Static effectsof regionaleconomic integration:The effectsthatoccur directlyontheformationofthe integrationproject.©Trade creation:Economic integrationcreates tradethat wouldnothave existedotherwise.

②Trade diversion:Economic integrationdivertstrade,away froma moreefficient nonmember supplier toaless efficientmembersupplier.©Administrative saving:Economicintegration canlead toadministrative savingby eliminatingtheneed forgovernment officialsto monitorthegoodsandservicesthatcross theborders.©Collective termsof tradeimproving:If ablocof countriesimposes thetariff,the fallin demandfor theimportedgoods willbe substantial.§Greater bargainingpowerintradenegotiation greaterthan theywould havehad negotiatedon theirown.

14.Dynamic effectsofregionaleconomicintegration:

①Increasecompetition andeconomies ofscale.Market sizeincreases lowerdegreeof monopoly;Some industriesrequire largescale production;Internal economiesofscalegreater production;Externaleconomies ofscale resultedfrom cheaper;capital,more highlyskilledlabor,or superiortechnology©Stimulate greaterinvestmentinthemember countries,e.g.massive U.S.investmentoccurred inthe EC

15.main differencesbetween GATTand WTO:©Nature:GATT一ad hocand provisionalnever ratifiedin membersparliamentand containedno provisionsforthecreation ofanorganization WTO一permanent,has soundlegal basismembershave ratifiedthe WTOagreements

②Scope:GATT一goods onlyWTO一goods,services andtrade-related aspectsofointellectual propertyrights.3Approach:GATT一selective basisplurilateralWTO一asingleundertaking multilateral©Disputeosettlement:WTO:Specific timelimits fasterthan theGATTo Haspermanentappellate bodyto reviewfindings bydispute settlementpanel.【关系

①the WTOreplaced GATTas aninternational organization,but theGATT stillexists asthe WTOs umbrellatready fortradein goods,updated asa resultoftheUruguay Roundnegotiations.]

16.F0B=Free onboard namedportofshipment•In FOB,thesellerisrequiredto delivergoods onboard avesselthatisto designatedbythebuyerataparticularport.The sellersobligationunder FOB:•1providing thegoods•2obtaining exportlicense andother documents•3carrying outall customs formalitiesforexport•4delivering thegoods onboard andnotify thebuyer•Notes for4:•a.thevesseldesignated bybuyer•b.attheparticular port•c.within thestipulated timeperiod•5bearing allrisks ofloss ofordamagetothegoods untilthetime theyvepassedtheship，srail•6providing thecommercial documents,or itsequivalentelectronic messageto buyerThebuyer obligationunder FOB:•1obtaining importlicense orother officialauthorization•2carryingoutall importcustomsformalities•3preparing carriagefromthenamedportofshipment•Notes for3:•a.payingthefreight•b informingthesellerofthenameandthe dateof arrival・oftheship•4bearing allrisks oflossofordamagetothegoods fromthetime theyvepassedtheshipsrail•5taking deliveryofthegoods,making paymenttothesellerVariations ofFOB Terms变体•FOB LinerTerms:FOB班轮条件。