托福阅读tpo65R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识

阅读TPO65・2Early Researchon Air原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文Early Researchon Air

①In thefield of chemistry,the understandingof theword“air”has undergoneradicalchange.Air forJohn Mayow,a seventeenth-century chemist,was essentiallyareceptacle forairborne particles,and throughthem manifesteda variety of chemicalproperties.But althoughMayow anda fewother chemistsdid detectspecificchemical propertiesin whatwe callgases includingour carbondioxide,mostchemists leftthem unaccountedfor untilthe beginningof theeighteenth century.Aschemists becameaware that the atmosphereitself andnot justparticles withinithad arole toplay incombustion,respiration,and otherreactions,they did notattribute thisto the chemical propertiesof airbut ratherto substancesthat aircouldabsorb andrelease accordingto circumstances.Thus,air provideda physicalenvironmentin whichsome reactionstook place.

②In theearly1700s,the airwas widelyseen asjust suchan environment,and“air”and“the air”were oneand thesame thing.Chemists werenot in the habitofregarding airsor gasesas havingdifferent chemicalproperties.There wassimply air.One obviousreason forthis waspractical.Chemists couldexamine solidsand liquids,exposing themto a varietyoftests andseeing howthey contributedto assortedreactions.Chemists had,however,no comparableway ofexamining air;and theycameto viewchemistry as the sumtotal of the reactionsof solidsand liquids,excluding gases.Chemists stressedchemical qualitiesover physicalproperties likeweightand letphysicists dealwith air.Chemists generallydid notexamine air,andthey did not tryto weighit.That doesnot meanthat chemistsdid notweighsubstances.They dida lotof weighing,and pharmacistsand metallurgistsdid more.But weighinggases wasoutside theirbrief.In the Encyclopedia ofDiderot anddAlembert,published between1751and1775,readers weretold that“theincoercibility ofgases willremove themfrom ourresearches fora longtime tocome.”3By thetime of theEncyclopedia,however,this hadbegun tochange.One of thefirst andkey sourcesof changewas theinvention bythe ReverendStephen Halesof anewinstrument,the pneumatic trough.This instrumentis importantfor whatitmade possiblein thehandling of air.The historyof itsinvention andearly useillustratesthe differencethere maybe betweenthe motivesfor inventinga deviceandthe waysin whichthat deviceis used.

④Hales was a botanistand chemistas wellasaphysiologist.He wrotea bookin1727investigating mechanicalsubjects like the pressureof sapin plants.But Haleswentfurther,addressing chemicalas wellas physiologicalquestions.He urgedchemiststo considerair chemically.He describedan instrumentfor washingthe airproducedin thecourse of a chemicalreaction.He wantedto getrid ofimpurities intheair byletting itpass throughwater.Air passedfrom areaction vesselthroughwater ina troughor tubeand theninto asecond vesselthat waspartly filledwithwater andthat couldcapture air.

⑤In devisingthis apparatus,Hales hadcoincidentally furnishedan instrumentforcatching andholding air,which couldthen besubjected tovarious tests.Used inthisway,the apparatusbecame knownasthepneumatictrough.Half acentury afteritsinvention,it becamea stapleofthechemical laboratory.It alsobecame oneof thekeyinstruments inthe reformofchemistrythat we know asthechemicalrevolutionbecause it was essentialto incorporatinga wholenew stateof matter,the gaseousstate,into chemistry,alongside thealready studiedsolid andliquid states.Once thatstephad beentaken,itwaspossible tospeculate andthen todemonstrate thatthegaseous state,likethesolid andliquid states,could containavarietyof chemicalsubstances.This wasan enormousstep,and itdidnothappen overnight.Hales hadshownthat aircould becontained,washed,and purified,and testedchemically aswellas physically.This,however,didnotlead himto thinkthat therewas morethanone kindofair.Air forhim remainedair,not oneofanumber ofairs.Other chemistswouldtake thatessential step.译文空气的早期研究

①连续几代的北美人以不同的方式看待他们大陆的自然环境从当前的角度来看，很明显，人们对这片土地的看法从最初的定居期到内战期发生了巨大的变化不仅这样的愿景经常改变，而且不同的人用他们自己独特的视角重塑土地本身，使之符合他们自己对大自然的理解如果一些变化的后果，像砍伐森林和填平低地，是故意的和有特定目的的一比如去开放景观和创造广阔的远景---其他的人类活动，如采矿和大坝建设，带来了无法预测和无法想到的结果原住民族，不亚于第一批殖民者和后来的北美移民，已经重塑了自然环境以满足他们的物质需求和精神需求的确，我们今天所知道的许多景观反映了几个世纪前开始的使用和滥用模式

②早在第一批欧洲殖民者到达大陆东部海岸之前，土著居民就已经发展出了改变这片土地地貌的农业耕作方式通过有选择地割去树皮去清除树木，弗吉尼亚潮汐区（沿海低地）和东北部大部分地区的印第安人腾出了空地来种植玉米、南瓜、豆类和瓜类尽管第一批英国移民对乡村的描述几乎全是树木，森林仍旧提供了巨大的、间距良好的树木的树冠，马匹和骑手可以不受阻碍地通过印第安人通过频繁地移动他们的花园地块以寻找更加肥沃的土壤，以及定期地烧毁灌木丛，从而进一步开放了土地，通过这种方式为他们狩猎鹿和其他猎物提供了便利在印第安人眼中，人们与自然的和谐相处并不令人惊讶，他们通过季节性的仪式和历史悠久的习俗来庆祝大自然的财富

③相比之下，入侵到这个和谐世界的欧洲殖民者往往认为它是陌生的、具有威胁性的；有些人用《圣经》的语言称它为“极致荒野”新到美国的人带来了基于他们在英国经历的农业实践和对大自然的先入为主的看法他们把未开垦的土地看作需要“被破坏”、“修整”和“改良”的废地在新英格兰，移居的英国殖民者为了试图征服他们认为可怕的荒野，他们绘制了乡村地图，排干了沼泽地，清理了牧场，用栅栏围起了特定的土地，种植了小麦和其他常见的作物在清教徒最初定居的20年里，爱德华•约翰逊为新来者的成就而自豪:这荒僻的、多岩石的、贫瘠的、茂密的、树木繁茂的荒野，是狮子、狼、熊、狐狸、浣熊、海狸、水獭和各种野生动物的栖息地，这地方给当地人提供的最多的也就是一些野生动物的肉和烤焦的印第安玉米上的栗子和苦橡子，而现在，由于基督的仁慈，在如此短的时间内，它已成为第二个富饶的英格兰,它确实是世界的奇迹

④因此，英国人并没有去适应他们的新土地，而是通过砍伐树木、建造农场和耕作来改变它，或者寻找能让他们想起英国乡村的土壤和景观特征世纪和世纪1718的一代移民试图征服这片土地，征服他们对它的恐惧，然而，他们并没有获得他们所渴望的对这片土地的掌控力在某种程度上，这种失败源自于他们沿河定居的习惯为了加快旅行和便利农产品的运输，新来者总是沿着河流建房尽管殖民者试图通过水坝来控制水路，但河流总是提醒他们有关大自然的不可预测性和强大的力量河流可能，而且经常会突然改变河道，或者在突如其来的暴雨中洪水泛滥直到世纪中叶，殖民者才开始抛弃他们对这片土地的负面看法，过去人们认为这片18土地是一片需要敬畏和控制的荒野,取而代之的是人们认为大自然既可怕又有用的观点题目l.Which ofthe sentencesbelow bestexpresses theessential informationin thehighlightedsentence inthe passageIncorrect choiceschange themeaning inimportantways orleave outessential information.A.Some changesto the land have been madeto improvethe landscape,and othershavebeen madefor economicreasons.B.While human beings intendto improveland whenmaking changesto it,some oftheirundertakings have brought disagreeableresults.C.Of allthe changesmade byhumanbeings,those madeto forestsand lowlandshavebeen themost deliberate and purposeful.D.While theconsequences ofsome changesto theland havebeen intentional,others havebeen unexpected.©Successive generationsof NorthAmericans haveviewed theircontinent snaturalenvironment indifferent ways.From thevantage pointofthepresent,it isclear thatperceptionsoftheland havechanged dramaticallyfrom thefirst yearsof settlementtothe CivilWar.Not onlyhave suchvisions oftenshifted,but alsodifferent peopleshaveused theirparticular perspectiveto reshapethelanditself andmake itfit theirownsense ofwhat natureshould be.If theconsequences ofsome changes,such as一cutting forestsand fillingin lowlands,havebeendeliberateandpurposeful toopen一the landscapeand createsweeping vistas,for exampleother humanundertakings,such asmining anddam building,havebroughtresults neitheranticipated norintended.Native peoples,no lessthan thefirst colonistsand subsequentimmigrantsto NorthAmerica,have reshapedthe naturalenvironment tomeet theirphysicalwants andspiritual needs.Indeed,much ofthe landscapeweknowtoday reflectspatternsof useand abusethat beganseveral centuriesago.

2.The word“subsequent“inthepassage isclosest inmeaning toA.laterB.originalC.numerousD.occasional

3.1n paragraph2,why doesthe authormention that Native Americansfrequentlymoved theirgarden plotsto morefertile soiland periodicallyburned theundergrowthA.To identifysome ofthe seasonalrituals practicedby Native AmericansB.To contrastNativeAmericanwith Europeanagricultural practicesC.To explainsome ofthe techniquesNative Americansused tochange thelandscapeeven beforethe arrivalof EuropeansD.To demonstratethatthehunting ofdeer andother gameplayed acentral roleinNative Americanculture

4.Which ofthe followingcan beinferred fromparagraph2about treedensity inAmericanforestsA.The forestsbecame lessdense overtime becauseEuropeans clearedpaths forridinghorses.B.Planting gardenswas theprimary wayNative Americanskept forestsfrombecoming toodense totravel through.C.The NativeAmerican practiceof clearingtrees bycutting awaythe barkcausedthem togrow backmore denselythan before.D.The forestswere lessdense thanthey appearedbecause NativeAmericans hadclearedaway selectedtrees.

5.According toparagraph2,all ofthe followingare waysthatNativeAmericansaltered theland EXCEPT。