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Development of the PeriodicTable元素周期表的演进The periodic table isa chartthat reflectsthe periodicrecurrence ofchemical andphysicalproperties of the elementswhen the elements arearranged inorder ofincreasingatomic number the number of protons in the nucleus.It isa monumentalscientificachievement,and itsdevelopment illustratesthe essentialinterplay betweenobservation,prediction,and testingrequired forscientific progress.In the1800*s scientistsweresearching fornew elements.By thelate1860s morethan60chemical elementshad beenidentified,and muchwas knownabout theirdescriptive chemistry.Various proposalswereput forthto arrangetheelementsinto groupsbased onsimilarities inchemical andphysicalproperties.The nextstep was to recognizea connectionbetween groupproperties physicalorchemical similaritiesand atomic mass themeasured mass of anindividual atomof anelement.When theelements knownat thetime wereordered byincreasing atomicmass,itwas foundthat successiveelements belongedto differentchemical groupsand thatthe orderof the groupsin thissequence wasfixed andrepeated itselfat regularintervals.Thus whentheseries of elements waswritten soastobegin anew horizontalrow witheach alkalimetal,elements of the samegroups wereautomatically assembledin verticalcolumns in a periodictableoftheelements.This tablewas theforerunner ofthe moderntable.元素周期表是按原子序数元素原子核中质子的数量由小到大依次排列,反映化学周期性和元素的物理特征的图表这一科学发现具有里程碑的意义,它进一步证明了科学探索过程中观察、预测和实证之间的根本联系19世纪一开始,科学家们不断探索新的元素到19世纪60年代后期,已经发现了60种以上的化学元素,而许多描述性化学被认知人们提出各种建议,认为该基于化学和物理特征的相似性将化学元素排列成组他们接下来又证实了元素的族群特性物理或是化学相似性和原子质量一种元素的单个原子的测量质量之间存在联系当时元素还是按照原子质量从小到大排列,人们发现,一些具备连续性的元素却分属不同的化学组,并且发现在这种排列方式下,元素群组的顺序是固定的且定期重复因此,当每一新行都以碱性金属元素开始并逐步将这一系列的元素排列出来时,元素周期表中同一组中的元素就会自动归入一个垂直纵列中这个表格就是现代元素周期表的雏形When theGerman chemistLothar Meyerand independentlythe RussianDmitryMendeleyev firstintroduced the periodic tablein1869-70,one-third ofthe naturallyoccurringchemical elementshad notyet beendiscovered.Yet bothchemists weresufficientlyfarsighted toleave gapswhere theiranalyses ofperiodic physicaland chemicalpropertiesindicated thatnew elements should belocated.Mendeleyev wasbolder thanMeyerand evenassumed thatif ameasured atomicmass putan element in thewrong placein the table,the atomicmass waswrong.In somecases thiswas true.Indium,for example,had previouslybeen assignedan atomicmass betweenthose of arsenic andselenium.Because thereis nospace in the periodic table betweenthese twoelements,Mendeleyevsuggested thatthe atomicmassofindium bechanged toa completelydifferent value,whereit wouldfill anempty spacebetween cadmiumand tin.In fact,subsequent workhas shownthatinaperiodic table,elementsshouldnot beordered strictlyby atomicmass.For example,tellurium comesbefore iodinein theperiodictable,even thoughits atomicmass isslightlygreater.Such anomaliesare dueto therelative abundanceoftheisotopes orvarieties ofeachelement.All theisotopes of a givenelement havethe samenumber ofprotons,butdiffer in their number of neutrons,and henceintheiratomicmass.The isotopesof agivenelement havethe samechemical propertiesbut slightlydifferent physicalproperties.Wenow knowthat atomicnumberthenumber ofprotonsinthenucleus,not atomicmassnumber thenumberofprotons andneutrons,determines chemicalbehavior.当德国化学家迈耶Lother Meyer和彼此独立的俄国化学家门捷列夫在1869年到1870年间首次发布元素周期表时,有三分之一的天然化学元素还没被发现°然而这两位化学家都极富远见,他们在周期表上留白,对元素物理性和化学性的分析空白处还有新的元素有待发现门捷列夫比迈耶更为大胆,他甚至做出d险设,如果周期表按原子质量排列,但元素位置不对的话,那么原子质量也是错的在某些情况下,这个设想是正确的以锢为例,先前测量出锢的原子质量在神和硒之间但是因为在周期表中这两个元素之间没有缝隙,由此门捷列夫提出锢的原子质量变为截然不同的一个值,这样就可以将其置于镉和锡之间的空位事实上,接下来的研究表明,元素周期表中元素不能严格按照原子质量排列例如,尽管石帝的原子质量比碘略大,但在元素周期表中,它却排在碘前面出现这种反常现象,主要是因为相对丰富的“同位素”或者各种元素的多样性同一元素的所有同位素具有相同的质子数,但中子数不同,因此它们的原子质量也不一样一个特定元素的同位素具有相同的化学特征,但在物理性质上有一些细微差异现在我们知道,是原子数目(原子核中质子的数量)而非原子质量(质子和中子的数量)决定着元素的化学性质Mendeleyev wentfurther thanMeyer inanother respect:he predictedthe propertiesofsix elementsyet tobe discovered.For example,a gapjust belowaluminum suggesteda newelementwould befound withproperties analogousto thoseof aluminum.Mendeleyevdesignated thiselementneka-aluminumn(eka isthe Sanskritword fornext)and predicteditsproperties.Just fiveyears lateran elementwith theproper atomicmass wasisolated andnamedgallium byits discoverer.The closecorrespondence betweenthe observedpropertiesof galliumand Mendeleyevaspredictions foreka-aluminum lentstrong supporttotheperiodiclaw.Additional supportcame in1885when eka-silicon,which hadalso beendescribedin advanceby Mendeleyev,was discoveredand namedgermanium.门捷列夫在另一个研究上也比迈耶更为深入他预测还有六种元素的性质待被发现例如,就在铝下面有一个空位,这表明还有一个性质和铝类似的新元素存在门捷列夫将该元素定义为“铝下元素”(eka是梵语词,意思是“下一个”)并且还预测了其性质「仅仅5年之后,原子质量相吻合的元素就被分离出来,发现者将其命名为*家绿所表现出的特性和门捷歹”夫对“铝下元素”的预测——对应,这为元素法则提供了一个强有力的依据还有一个例证,1885年发现“硅下元素”,同样为门捷列夫所预测,后来命名为错The structureoftheperiodictableappeared tolimit thenumberofpossible elements.It wastherefore quitesurprising whenJohn WilliamStrutt,Lord Rayleigh,discovered agaseouselementin1894that didnot fitinto theprevious classificationscheme.A centuryearlier,Henry Cavendishhad notedthe existenceofaresidual gaswhen oxygenandnitrogen areremoved fromair,but itsimportance hadnot beenrealized.Together withWilliamRamsay,Rayleigh isolatedthe gasseparating itfrom othersubstances intoits purestateand namedit argon.Ramsay thenstudied agas thatwas presentin naturalgas depositsanddiscovered thatit washelium,an elementwhose presenceintheSun hadbeen notedearlierinthespectrum ofsunlight butthat hadnot previouslybeen knownon Earth.Rayleigh andRamsay postulatedthe existenceofanew groupofelements,and in1898other membersoftheseries neon,krypton,and xenonwere isolated.元素周期表的框架似乎限制了可能存在的元素数量因此,当约翰•威廉姆・斯特拉特瑞利男爵,在1894年发现一种气态元素不能适应之前的元素表时会非常惊讶一个世纪以前,亨利•卡文迪许就注意到,当氧气和氮气从空气中被移除后仍然有残余气体存在,但当时没人意识到其中的重要性瑞利和威廉•拉姆齐一道,共同分离出一种气体将之与其他物质隔离并存于一个真空环境并将其命名为氮拉姆齐经过研究又发现了另一种存在于自然界中的气体元素——氨,该元素在太阳中存在,并且很早就被发现存在于太阳光谱中,但是之前并没有在地球上找到过瑞利和拉姆齐做出假设,认为存在一组新元素,1898年,这一系列元素中的其他元素(负,氯,氤)也被成功分离出来。