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Pastoralism inAncient Inner Eurasia古代内欧的畜牧Pastoralism isa lifestylein whicheconomic activityis basedprimarily onlivestock.Archaeological evidencesuggests thatby3000B.C.,and perhapseven earlier,there hademergedon thesteppes of InnerEurasiathe distinctivetypes of pastoralism thatwere todominatethe regionshistory forseveral millennia.Here,the horsewas alreadybecomingthe animalof prestigein manyregions,though sheep,goats,and cattlecould alsoplay avitalrole.It is the useof horsesfor transportationand warfarethat explainswhy InnerEurasianpastoralism provedthe most mobile andthe mostmilitaristic of all majorfors ofpastoralism.The emergenceand spreadof pastoralismhad aprofound impacton thehistoryofInnerEurasia,and also,indirectly,on theparts ofAsia andEurope justoutsidethis area.In particular,pastoralism favorsa mobile lifestyle,and thismobility helpstoexplain theimpact of pastoralist societieson thispart of the world.畜牧是一种经济活动建立在家畜的饲养上的生活方式考古证据已经显示早在公元前3000年甚至更早的时候,位于欧洲大陆的西伯利亚大草原上已经有一些能够主导这些地区历史长达几千年的独特的畜牧类型在这里,尽管绵羊、山羊和牛扮演了非常重要的角色,但是马已经在许多地区成为具有优势地位的动物正是马在交通运输和战争中的使用解释了为什么欧洲大陆的畜牧主义被证明为在所有畜牧主义中最具移动性和最具军事性的一种畜牧主义的出现和传播对欧洲内陆有一个深远的影响,同时,也间接地影响了一些在这之外的部分亚洲和欧洲地区特别是,畜牧主义喜欢一种流动中的生活方式,这种流动性有利于解释畜牧主义社会对这部分世界的影响The mobilityof pastoralist societies reflectstheir dependenceon animal-based foods.While agriculturalistsrely ondomesticated plants,pastoralists relyon domesticatedanimals.As aresult,pastoraksts,like carnivoresin general,occupy a higher positionon thefoodchain.All elsebeing equal,this meansthey mustexploit largerareas ofland thandoagriculturalists tosecure thesame amountof food,clothing,and othernecessities.Sopastoralism isa moreextensive lifewaythan farmingis.However,the largerthe terrainusedto supporta group,the harderit isto exploitthat terrainwhile remainingin oneplace.So,basic ecologicalprinciples implya strongtendency withinpastoralist lifewaystowardnomadism amobilelifestyle.As thearchaeologist RogerCribb putsit,The greaterthedegree ofpastoralism,the strongerthe tendencytoward nomadism.1A modernTurkicnomad interviewedby Cribbcommented:The moreanimals youhave,the fartheryouhave tomove.畜牧主义社会的流动性反映了他们对以动物为基础的食物的依赖如果说农业靠在人工种植植物,那么畜牧就依赖于家养动物因此,一般说来食肉性动物在这种食物链中占据了一个更高的位置由于其他方面都是相同的,这就意味着如果他们要保证与农业相同的食物、衣物以及其他生活必需品,他们就必须开拓出比农业更大的区域因此,畜牧业是一种比农业更宽泛的生活方式但是,支撑一个族群的领土越大,在保持一个地方的同时开发这些领土的困难也就越大所以,基本的生态学原理暗示了一种由畜牧主义生活方式向游牧主义生活方式转变的强大趋势正如考古学家RogerCribb指出的,畜牧化的程度越深,就会有一种越趋于游牧主义的形式Cribb评论一个被他观察了的现代土耳其游牧民族道,你拥有越多的动物,你就不得不流动到越远的地方Nomadism hasfurther consequences.It meansthat pastoralist societies occupyand caninfluencevery largeterritories.This isparticularly trueof thehorse pastoralismthatemerged in the InnerEurasian steppes,for thiswas themostmobileofallmajor formsofpastoralism So,it isno accidentthat withthe appearanceofpastoralistsocieties thereappearlarge areasthat sharesimilar cultural,ecological,and evenlinguistic features.Bythe latefourth millenniumB.C.,there isalready evidenceof largeculture zonesreachingfrom EasternEurope tothe westernborders ofMongolia.Perhaps themost strikingsign ofmobilityisthefact thatby thethird millenniumB.C.,most pastoralistsin thishuge regionspokerelated languagesancestral tothe modemIndo-European languages.The remarkablemobilityand rangeofpastoralsocieties explain,in part,why somany linguistshave arguedthatthe Indo-European languagesbegan theirastonishing expansionistcareer notamongfarmers inAnatolia present-day Turkey,but amongearly pastoralistsfrom InnerEurasia.Such theoriesimply thatthe Indo-European languagesevolved notin Neolithic10,000to3,000B.C.Anatolia,but amongthe foragingcommunities of the culturesintheregion oftheDon andDnieper rivers,which tookup stockbreeding andbegan toexploit theneighboringsteppes.游牧生活有一些更重大的意义它意味着畜牧主义社会占据着并且影响着非常大的地域特别是在欧洲内陆的西伯利亚大草原上的以马为畜牧对象的出现更具重大意义,因为它是在所有畜牧业中移动性最强的一种所以,畜牧社会所变现出来的在较大地域中分享类似的文化、生态以及语言特点并非偶然现象在公元前4000年的后期,已经有证据显示存在着一个从东欧延伸到蒙古边境的大文化圈也许在其移动性方面最具说服力的标志是在公元前3000在这个区域的大部分的畜牧者都讲一种与现代印欧语系有关的古老语言这种值得关注的移动性和畜牧社会的地理范围在某种程度上解释了很多语言学家一直争论的一个问题,那就是为什么印欧语系并不是从Anatolia现在的土耳其的农民中传播开来的,而是从早期欧洲内陆的畜牧主义者中产生这些理论暗示了印欧语系不是从新石器时代的Antolia发展而来,而是在Don和Draper流域内从事家畜养殖和开发邻近的西伯利亚大草原的畜牧社群中发展而来Nomadism alsosubjects pastoralistcommunities tostrict rulesof portability,alf youareconstantly onthe move,you cannotafford toaccumulate largematerial surpluses.■Such ruleslimit variationsin accumulatedmaterial goodsbetween pastoralisthouseholdsthough theymay alsoencourage ataste forportable goodsof highvalue suchas silksorjewelry.・So,by andlarge,nomadism impliesahighdegree ofself-sufficiency andinhibitsthe appearanceof anextensive divisionof labor.■Inequalities of wealth andrankcertainly exist,and haveprobably existed in mostpastoralistsocieties,but exceptinperiods ofmilitary conquest,they arenormally tooslight togenerate thestable,hereditaryhierarchies thatare usuallyimplied by the useoftheterm class.Inequalities ofgender havealsoexistedinpastoralistsocieties,but theyseem tohave beensoftened bythe absenceofsteep hierarchiesofwealthin mostcommunities,and alsobytherequirement thatwomenacquire mostoftheskills ofmen,including,often,their militaryskills.游牧主义者也用便于携带但却严格的规则下征服了畜牧主义者如果你不断地移动,你就负担不起大量的剩余物资这样的规则限制了畜牧主义者家用物资的多样性积累尽管他们也鼓励积累高质量的便于携带的物品,如真丝和珠宝所以,大体上来说,游牧民族包含着一个高程度的自给自足社会并且限制宽泛的劳动分工当然,不公平的财富和社会地位也同样存在,而且是存在于绝大多数的畜牧主义社会里但是除了在军事征服时段里,他们由于过于弱小而不能形成所想象的稳定的、世袭的统治阶级畜牧主义社会里也同样存在性别上的不公平,但是由于在大多数社群中缺少严格的财富等级制度,并且由于妇女往往具有男子的技能所以这种不公平性被弱化了。