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Types ofSocial Groups社会群组的类型Life placesus ina complexweb ofrelationships withother people.Our humannessarisesout of these relationshipsin thecourse ofsocial interaction.Moreover,our humannessmustbe sustainedthrough socialinteraction-and fairlyconstantly so.When anassociationcontinues longenough fortwo peopleto becomelinked togetherby arelatively stablesetof expectations,it iscalled arelationship.我们和其他人一起生活在一个复杂的关系网中我们的人性就产生于这种社会性的互动关系中,与此同时,我们的人性也必须通过经常性的社会互动才能得以保存当两个人在比较稳定的期望值下的交流时间足够长并且形成一种联系时,这种联系就可以称为关系People arebound withinrelationships bytwo types of bonds:expressive tiesandinstrumental ties.Expressive tiesare sociallinks formedwhen weemotionally investourselvesin andcommit ourselvesto otherpeople.Through associationwith people whoare meaningfulto us,we achievea sense of security,love,acceptance,companionship,andpersonal worth.Instrumental tiesare sociallinks formedwhen wecooperate withotherpeople toachieve somegoal.Occasionally,this maymeanworking withinstead of against competitors.More often,we simplycooperate withothersto reachsome endwithout therelationship withany largersignificance.人与人之间的关系可以分为两种情感纽带和工具纽带情感纽带在当我们感性的与他人交流时形成的一种社会联系通过和对我们来说十分重要的人交流从而得到的安全感,爱情,认可,友谊和个人价值等一系列情感工具纽带是但我们为了达到一些目标而与他人进行合作时产生的社会联系方式有些时候,这也许意味着变相与竞争者一起共事更多的时候我们没有发展出任何更有意义的关系而只是简单的与其他人合作并走向终点Sociologists havebuilt onthe distinctionbetween expressiveand instrumentalties todistinguishbetween twotypesofgroups:primary andsecondary.A primarygroupinvolves two or morepeoplewhoenjoy adirect,intimate,cohesive relationshipwith oneanother.Expressive tiespredominate inprimary groups;we viewthe peopleas endsinthemselves andvaluable in their own right.A secondary group entailstwoormore peoplewhoare involvedin animpersonal relationshipand havecome togetherfor aspecific,practical purpose.Instrumental tiespredominate insecondary groups;we perceivepeopleas meansto endsrather thanas endsin theirownright.Sometimes primarygrouprelationships evolveout ofsecondarygrouprelationships.This happensin manyworksettings.People onthe joboften developclose relationshipswith coworkersas theycometo sharegripes,jokes,gossip,and satisfactions.社会学家基于感情纽带与工具纽带的特征对两者进行了区分定义并划分出两种类型的群组主要群组和次要群组一个主要社群包含两个或更多人,他们都喜欢直接,亲密的,有粘性的与他人的关系感情纽带在主要社群中起主导作用我们审视人的时候是在他们生命的走到尽头的时候,还有他们的个人价值次要群组也需要两个以上的不过是因为非个人关系而且聚到一起都是为了一个具体的,特定的目标而工具纽带就在其中起了重要的作用我们关注人们在最后的价值要比他们自己的权利要多有时主要群组的关系也会在次要群组中演化出来这种现象一般发生在一些工作安排当中人们在共同合作中会相互发牢骚,开玩笑,传八卦以及满足感,由此依旧发展出了亲近的关系A numberof conditionsenhance thelikelihood thatprimary groupswill arise.First,groupsize isimportant.We findit difficultto getto knowpeople personallywhen theyaremilling aboutand dispersedin largegroups.In smallgroups we have abetter chancetoinitiate contactand establishrapport with them.Second,face-to-face contactallows ustosize upothers.Seeing andtalking withone anotherin closephysical proximitymakespossible asubtle exchangeof ideasand feelings.And third,the probabilitythat wewilldevelop primarygroup bondsincreases aswehavefrequent andcontinuous contact.Ourties withpeople oftendeepen aswe interactwith themacross timeand graduallyevolveinterlocking habitsand interests.在一些情况下主要群组的扩大会导致生活习惯的增加首先,群组的规模非常重要当一个人身处并消失在一个巨大的群体里时,我们很难了解到他但是在小型的群组里我们就能获得更多的机会开展联系并建立关系第二点,面对面的久留能让我们更好的审视他们与另一个人近距离的观察和交谈可以有更多的机会交流细微的感情与观念第三点,我们发展主要群组的可能性和我们经常性的持续的交流息息相关我们与其他人的纽带经常随着我们与其他人的互动而加深并演化为深层的相关联的习惯和兴趣Primary groupsare fundamentalto usand tosociety.First,primary groupsare criticaltothe socializationprocess.Within them,infants andchildren areintroduced tothe waysoftheir society.Such groupsare thebreeding groundsin whichwe acquirethe normsandvalues thatequip usfor sociallife.Sociologists viewprimary groupsas bridgesbetweenindividuals andthe largersociety because they transmit,mediate,and interpreta societysculturalpatterns andprovide thesenseofoneness socritical forsocial solidarity.主要群组是人与人之间乃至整个社会的基础第一,主要群组是社会化进程的推动力量在主要群组里,婴儿与孩童可以了解他们所处社会的种种处世办法像这样的群组一般会产生于我们与我们的社会生活所需要的标准和价值观体系内社会学家通过对主要群组的观察将其比喻为独立的个体与整个社会之间的桥梁,因为他能转换,能调节,能解释一个社会文化符号并且能够表达个体的感情并最终将二者合而为一Second,primary groupsare fundamentalbecause theyprovide thesettings inwhich wemeetmost ofour personalneeds.■Within them,we experiencecompanionship,love,security,and anoverall senseof well-being.-Not surprisingly,sociologists findthat thestrengthof agroups primaryties hasimplications forthe groupsfunctioning.■Forexample,the strongerthe primarygroup tiesofasports teamplaying together,the bettertheirrecord is.H第二点,主要群组之所以是基础是因为它能提供我们解决的各人需求的种种方法在主要群组中,我们友谊,经历爱情,获得依靠以及所有我们所希望得到的情感毫无疑问社会学家发现一个群组的主要纽带的强弱往往暗示着这个群组的功能比如,一群在一起比赛的队伍的主要群体纽带越强,他们的成绩就越好Third,primary groupsare fundamentalbecausetheyserve aspowerful instrumentsforsocial control.Their memberscommand anddispense manyoftherewards thatare sovitalto usand thatmake ourlives seemworthwhile.Should theuse ofrewards fail,memberscan frequentlywin byrejecting orthreatening toostracize thosewho deviatefrom theprimary groups norms.For instance,some socialgroups employshunning aperson canremaininthecommunity,but othersare forbiddento interactwiththeperson asa devicetobring intoline individualswhose behaviorgoes beyondthat allowedby theparticulargroup.Even moreimportant,primarygroupsdefine socialreality forus bystructuring ourexperiences.By providingus withdefinitions ofsituations,they elicitfrom usbehaviorthat conformsto group-devised meanings.Primary groups,then,serve bothas carriersofsocial normsand asenforcers ofthem.第三点,主要群组之所以是基础还因为他们提供强有力的社会统治工具这之中的成员调集并分配能够维持我们的生存的极其重要的资源如果不能分配无效,那么群组成员就会通过拒绝或是指控来摒弃那些背离组织标准的人,比如一些社会群组雇佣仲裁者一种可以呆在群体中,但是却不能与群体成员互动的人像一部机器一样的给那些习惯于超过这个群组所允许的范围行动的个体制定标准更重要的是,主要群组通过构筑我们的经验来为我们的社会现实下定义通过向我们提供对我们的处境的定义,他们可以得出我们所遵守的组织所设计的意义的习性主要群组,甚至会同时制定社会准则并不断的完善这些准则。