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Istituto AffariInternazionali二Comprehensive Security and New Challenges:Strengthening the OSCE——by Monika Wohlfeld and Fred Tanner一■■■research ne two rkNew-MedABSTRACTThe Organization for SecurityCooperation in Europes comprehensive security approach,developed in the1970s,continues toguide itswork on new transnational and multidimensionalchallenges.Relations withother international organisations and withneighbouring regionsare essentialto understandhow the OSCEhas facedthese new challenges.Different case studies illustrateOSCE efforts,notably challengesemanatingfrom theabuses of digital technology;the fight against hate crime on social media;the nexusbetween climate change,development and security;and the need to address migration and humantraffickingas well as the global effectsof the covid-19pandemic.While theemergence of new securitychallengesin anincreasingly unstableinternational environmentpresents newrisks to the OSCE,finding away forward mayhelp overcomethe persistentpolitical divisionsamong the OSCEsparticipating States.keywordsOSCE|Security\Cyber-security\Social media\Climate change|Migration\CoronavirusIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zin theirreports of2013and
2015.31With thehelp of an open-ended informalworking group,the OSCElauncheda cyberconfidence-building measuresprocess fortransparency building and riskreduction.OSCE participating States adopted16practical cyber/ICT confidence-building measures.32Inspirationand lessonslearned could also bedrawn fromother regional organisations,such as the AssociationofSoutheast AsianNations ASEAN Regional Forumor theShanghai CooperationCouncil,which haddevelopedtheir owncodes ofconduct incyber security.Cyber securityemerged on the policy agendas ofcapitals morethan adecade agobut sincethe controversy二around Russias alleged interferencein the2016elections in the US,the nexusbetween election integrityand cyber security hasbecome amajor policy and researchissue.Cyber security is ashared concernfor allparticipating States andaccordingly the OSCE Ministerial Council decisionshave laid the normativegroundworkfor cyber security activities and empoweredthe OSCE to developcooperative and inclusiveresponses tocyber threats.33The OSCE has beenassisting states in theiroperationalisation throughcapacity-building workshops,tabletop exercisesand theuse of the OSCEcommunication network.—Cyber-crime and cyber securityare todayone of the topkey activitiesin almostall OSCEfield missions.—Cyber issuesand newtechnologies are also ofinterest to all partner States andhave beendiscussed in a一variety offormats,ranging from annual Asian and Mediterranean partners conferencesand the respectivePartners for Co-operation Groupmeetings,to regularinterregional eventsinspired andfunded bySouthKorea.Several recentextra-budgetary projectswith Mediterraneanpartners focus on cyber-crime,the roleofICT,cyber operationsand cyberconfidence-building measures.Apart fromseminars andconferences,these activitiesalso take the form of trainingsessions.Nevertheless,the scopefor capacity building forMediterraneanpartners in this areais extensive.
4.2Fight againsthate crimeon socialmediaIn therecent past,election integrityand democraticgovernance in the OSCE area havecome underpressurefrom populismand far-right movements.The abuseofUN GeneralAssembly,Developments in the Field of Informationand Telecommumcationsin the Context ofInternationalSecurity A/RES/70/237,23December2015,https://undocs.Org/a/res/70/
237.31P~Agreed measuresincluded voluntaryinformation sharingon nationalcyber postures,using the OSCE as a platformfor dialogue,meetings of national contactsand support for nationalcapacitybuildingto protectcritical infrastructures.32OSCE Permanent Council DecisionsNo.1039of26April2012PC.DEC/1039,.org/node/90169;No.1106of3December2013PC.DEC/1106,;and No.1202of10March2016PC.DEC/1202,.OSCEMinisterial Council,Decision No.5/17-Enhacing OSCEEfforts toReduce theRisk ofConflict Stemming from the Use ofInformationand CommunicationTechnologies MC.DEC/5/17,8December2017,https://.digital communicationtechnology canfacilitate trafficking in human beings andencourage terrorism,spread disinformationand hatredand inciteviolence againstwomen.The complexrelationship betweenIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zthe potentialviolent effectsof digitalcommunication technologies,human rights,electionintegrityanddemocracy willcontinue torepresent a comprehensive security challenge in the mid-to long-termfuture.34How canthe OSCEaddress these challenges andwhat instrumentsare available to mitigatecyber risks andassist statesto achievecyber resilience^^when it comes toelection campaigns,election security and theprotection of human rights and fundamental freedoms二二The CopenhagenDocument1990provided the CSCE/OSCE withextensive responsibilitiesregardingthe pursuanceof electionintegrity in the OSCEregion.As tohate speech,hate crimeand hostilecampaigns,the documentrequires that political partiesand candidatesbe grantedfreedom fromneither[...]violencenor intimidation”,and thatvote castingbe freeof fearof retributiorT.35——The OSCEsOffice for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights ODIHRserves as the collectionpoint——for informationand statisticson hatecrimes andother relevantinformation provided by participatingStates,as well as onhate incidentsprovidedbyintergovernmental agenciesand civilsociety.Through itsonlinereporting and hatecrimewebsite,ODIHR makesthe dataavailable to the broaderpublic.36PartnerStates havenot participatedin thisendeavour sofar.一一
4.3The nexusbetween climate change,development and securityThe climate change agendais drivenby the United Nations,as convenerfor globalmeetings or as venuefordialogue,monitoring andreview ofimplementation of the globalcommitments on this planetaryemergency”.37Climate changeas athreat multipliergenerates anegative impact on all three dimensionsofthe OSCE.The OSCE,as a regionalorganisation,could makea valuablecontribution underChapter VIIIof the UN Charter.The OSCE Secretary GeneralSchmid notedin herinaugural remarksto the PermanentCouncil thatshe wouldpromote closercooperation with the United Nations,including on climate anddevelopment34The ODIHR/OSCE PAinternational missionelection reportof theUS elections,of3November2020,argued thatbaselessallegations ofsystematic deficiencies,notably by the incumbentpresident,including onelection night,harm publictrust indemocraticinstitutions”.ODIHR,United Statesof America,General Elections,3November2020:Final Report,9February2021,p.1,https://.35CSCE,Document of the CopenhagenMeeting of the Conferenceon theHuman Dimension of the CSCE,29June1990,para
7.7,.36OSCE ODIHRHate CrimeReporting website:.”
37..These commitmentsrely on the Paris Agreement,the2030Agenda forSustainable Developmentand theSendai Framework forDisaster RiskReduction2015-2030,among others.issues.38IIVVCCMMOOZZII4466IIOOOO99SS668888881166NNBBSSIIEE00996666II99ZZIn thepast,the OSCEapproach toclimate changewas asecond dimensionissue,dealing withdisaster riskreductionand prevention,water diplomacy,energy andsustainable cities.However,the effectsof climatechangeare alsolinked todevelopment,security and human rights.Security risksinclude,for instance,increased competitionfor foodand waterresources,which canhave animpact onstability.The climate change-security nexusis notyet anintegral part of the OSCEs comprehensive security agenda,even thoughthe Organizationhas acrisis responsemechanism forprevention,early warningand earlyaction that couldalso betailored toclimate changerisks.The2007Madrid Declaration on Environmentand Security recognisedthe roleof the UN anddefined thecomplementary rolethe OSCEplays“within its二mandate in addressing thischallenge inits specificregion”.39Attempts in2017and2018to includeamandate onclimate changehave failedas some participating Statesargued thatdealing withthis issuefallsoutside the Organizations mandate.Thus,the OSCE is notempowered toprogrammatically engageinclimate actions*However,there areexamples ofengagement on this issue,including throughtheregional consultationonclimatechange andsecurity in South-Eastern Europe,conducted by the OSCE—Office of theCo-ordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities and the Germanthink-tank—Adelphi.4i一The issueof climatechange andsecurityis also asensitive onefor partner States.It hasfound itsway ontotheagendas of annual conferencesdealing with“global security challenges”in thepast but not intocapacity-building andoperational activitieswith partner States.However,a proposednew multi-yearproject onprevention of climatechangeandsecuritythreats in the Mediterranean,a jointinitiative of theUnion for the Mediterranean and the OSCE,has beenput forward.42Vuk Zugic,Co-ordinator of OSCEEconomic andEnvironmentalActivities,explained that the projectsmain goalis tofacilitate theexchangeof experiences,38OSCE Secretary General,Inaugural Remarksat the Permanent Council,Secretary General Helga Maria Schmid,cit.、OSCE Ministerial Council,Madrid Declaration on Environmentand SecurityMC.DOC/4/07,3December2007,p.1,.‘°See for example the EU statementonthis issue:In the context ofglobal effortsto combatclimatechange,in particularafter theadoptionof theParisAgreement,we deeplyregret thatwe werenot ableto findconsensus ona textdealing withthis criticalandurgent issue”.OSCE Ministerial Council,Statement by the Representativeof the European Union”,in Final Document of theTwenty-Fourth Meeting of the Ministerial Council,Nienna,7-8December2017,p.75,node/
402209..41OSCE,OSCE andAdelphi ConcludeFirst RegionalConsultation onClimate Changeand Securityin South-Eastern Europe,23February2021,.42…,~Union for the Mediterranean,2019OSCE MediterraneanConference:Celebrating25Years of the MediterraneanPartnershipFramework for Cooperation,Tirana,24-25October2019,https://ufmsecretariat.org/p=
85157.and bestpractices with the Mediterraneanpartners.The projecthas yetto raisefunds andrecruit staff,butis groundbreaking interms offocus.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Z
4.4Migration and human traffickingIn the wakeof theso-called migrationcrisis inSouth-Eastern and Western Europein2015,someparticipating Statesboth EastandWestof Viennaargued that the OSCE could onlyplay asubsidiary andcomplementaryrole toother international actors,such as the United Nations HighCommissioner forRefugees,the InternationalOrganisation forMigration orthe EUwith itsFrontex activitiesin numerousOSCE states.The OSCEcan supportUN-led processesby providinga regionalcontribution.The OSCE,for instance,co-chairs,together withUN Women,the Inter-Agency CoordinationGroup againstTraffickingin Persons.Addressing migration-related crimeand trafficking in humanbeings isalso part of二the OSCESecretariates TransnationalThreats Departmentsprogramme activities,fromapolice-relatedperspective.Migration has been partof the CSCE/OSCE discourseever sincethe adoptionof the Helsinki Final Act in1975,but untila fewyears agomigration wasdealt withprimarily in the secondand thirddimensions.This—included the protectionof the rights and personaland socialwelfare ofregular migrants.43The significant—increase inirregular migrationflows generateda newurgency to address humanitarian,political andsocietalchallenges thatemerged across the OSCE.It raisedcorrelations betweenborder securitymanagement and theprospects ofradicalisation ofpolitical movementswith anti-immigration andxenophobicagendas.一These developmentsraised thequestion ofhow the OSCEcould help to address new challenges linked tomigration inEurope.In January2016,the incomingGerman OSCEChair-in-Office,then ForeignMinisterFrank-Walter Steinmeier,declared:rEspecially[on migration],we shouldmake useof thisorganisations potential.Its geographicalspanand comprehensive approach makeit asuitable vehicle.[...]And itsthe rightplace tolook at thesocial impactof migrationarid immigration-with a special focuson toleranceandnon-discrimination.4443See alsoOSCE Ministerial Council,Ljubljana MinisterialDecision No.2on MigrationMC.DEC/2/05,6December2005,;andDecision No.5/09,Migration ManagementMC.DEC/5/09,Athens,2December2009,.German FederalForeign Office,Inaugural Speechby ForeignMinister Frank-Walter Steinmeierto the OSCE PermanentCouncilto Markthe Startof Germany\OSCE Chairmanship,14January2016,https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/newsroom/news/160114-osze/277702;OSCE Ministerial Council,Report by the OSCE Chairmanship onLargeMovements of Migrants andRefugees MC.GAL/8/18,9December2016,p.1,.The GermanChairmanship establishedan InformalWorking GroupIWG on Migration andRefugeeFlows toexplore howa morecoherent andstrategic approachcould be adopted by the OSCE to addressthischallenge.This IWG,chaired bySwiss AmbassadorClaude Wild,produced a comprehensive reportIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zarguing thatmigration andrefugee flowsconstitute asecuritychallenge to the OSCE andrecommended toaddmigration governanceto the OSCE agenda,including throughdialogue and cooperation withPartnersfor Co-operation,with other international organisationsand civilsociety%The reportprescribed atruly comprehensive approach for the protectionof rightsof peopleon themove.46The IWGthus facilitatedconsensus-building amongparticipating Statesthat ledto the Ministerial CouncilDecisionon migrationin
2016.47二According to this Decision,OSCE participating States wereencouraged to use the OSCE platform,including appropriateOSCE workingbodies,to continueaddressing migration-related issueswhere theOSCEhas developedits expertise,and improvedialogue on migration-related matterswith regardtodeveloping possibleeffective measuresand commonapproaches to address them%—However,due toincreasing politicaltensions,lack ofresources andexpertise,in recentyears the OSCEhas—not beenabletostrengthen thenormative andoperational basisonmigration,with theexception ofactivitiesin the domains of human andchild trafficking.一For thepartner Statesas well,migration can be asensitive issue.While migrationhas beenaddressed in thecontext of the comprehensiveapproach to security duringrelevant conferencesand seminars,traffickinghas been one of the issuesthat have been ofgreater interestfor partnerStates,especially fromtheMediterranean region.Apart fromevents devotedto thisissue,such asforexamplethe SeminaronCo-operation toPrevent Traffickingin HumanBeings in the MediterraneanRegion heldin2013,a numberofprojects involvedMediterraneanpartners,including onpreventionrof traffickingin humanbeings.Some largemulti-year projectson traffickingfocus entirelyon theMediterraneanregion butnot allof theseare fullyfunded.OSCE Chairmanship,Towards ComprehensiveGovernance ofMigration andRefugee Flowsin the OSCE AreaCIO.GAL/117/16,75July
2016.6This includedthe need to assistparticipating States to implementtheir human dimension commitments,theprotectionof labourandsocial rightsof migrantworkers,combating allforms ofhuman traffickingalong migrationroutes,mainstreaming genderissuesin allpolicies and projects,and empoweringfield missionsto assisthost countriesin the implementation ofmigration governancecommitments and activities.See Ibid.
47.OSCE Ministerial Council,Decision No.3/16,OSCEs Rolein theGovernance ofLarge Movementsof Migrantsand RefugeesMC.DEC/3/16,9December2016,.48Ibid.,p.
2.
4.5The newchallenge of the covid-19pandemicIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZCovid-19represents anew globalchallengeto the OSCE.Apart fromthe immediateimpact on the healthsector,covid-19has ledto nationalisticimpulses,including“vaccine nationalism^,and hasaccelerated theretreatof multilateralism;it hashad tremendoussocio-economic costsand exacerbatedthe effectsofregional andinternational fragilityand fragmentation.Covid-19is notjust arisk andthreat tonationalsecurity andsocietal well-being,it hasalso amplifiedconflict dynamicsin the OSCE area.With thecovid-19-related lockdownsand closureof bordersbetween OSCEstates,the implementation ofcommitments related to the2011Vienna Document,and withit theConfidence-and Security-BuildingMeasures obligationin the OSCE,came basicallyto ahalt asinspections,evaluation visitsand二observations havebeen cancelled.49Furthermore,the securitydialogue on the Vienna Documentmodernisation wascut shortdue to the pandemic.50Special relevancein thecovid-19crisis fallsupon the“OSCE Codeof Conducton Politico-MilitaryAspects ofSecurity“that hasprovisos ondeployment ofarmed forcesin support of internalaffairs ofa—state.In manycountries,such adeployment insupport ofcovid-19measures has been madeunder state of—public emergencyconditions orsome otherformof emergency regimeor restrictivemeasures.This mayaffectstates obligationsrelated to human rightsandfundamental freedoms,such asfreedom ofassembly.According to the Copenhagenand Moscowdocuments,OSCEstateshave insuch casesa notificationobligationand theHelsinki Summitdocument1992assigns ODIHRwith a clearinghouse function.51一ODIHR askedthe participating States at the outset of thecrisis toreport ondeclarations orextensions ofanational stateof emergencyin theirwhole territoryorapartofit,in connectionwith the pandemic.Whilea numberof statesresponded tothis call,not allhave providedthe requestedinformation.52With regardto fieldmissions,the OSCEhad togive priorityto dutyof care of deployedpersonneha overmandateimplementation.The fieldmissions attempted449The TurkishChairmanship of the Forumfor SecurityCo-operation issueda letterappealing toall participating Statestorefrainfrom orpostpone verificationactivities underthe auspicesof theViennaDocument2011whenever possible,until it was determinedthat the prevailingconditions allowedsuch activitiesto takeplace safelyagain.OSCE Ministerial Council,Letter fromtheChairperson of the FSC to the Prime Minister and Minister for Europeand Foreign Affairs of the Republicof Albania,Chairpersonof the27th MCMC.GAL/2/20,1December2020,.OSCE,Journal of the944th PlenaryMeeting of the Forumfor SecurityCo-operation,29April2020,.’1OSCE,Impact ofEmergency Measureson Human Rights andDemocracy KeyFocus ofNew OSCE/ODIHR Report,17July2020,.52一As of15June2020,28participating Stateshad informedODIHR ofemergency measuresadopted.Fourteen Statescommunicatedhaving declareda nationwidestateofemergency orequivalent status,while onlysome providedinformation onderogations.53Duty ofcare measuresof the OSCE dealtwith healthand safetyof personnel,relocation andtosupport thehost countriesand themost vulnerablecommunities duringthe pandemiccrisis,mandatepermitting.The missionsalso workedon gender-related impactsof thecrisis,in particulargender-basedviolence duringlockdowns.At theMinisterial Councilmeeting inTirana inDecember2020,asadecision couldnot beagreed upon,IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zthe OSCE Chairmanship madea statementon behalfof participating States exceptone Armenia.Thestatement callsfor solidarityand multilateralcooperation addressingcovid-19,refers tocompliance issuesrelated to statesofemergency,warns ofrising instancesof racist,xenophobic anddiscriminatory publicdiscourseand underlinestheneedto takesteps tocounter thespread ofdisinformation.The statementcoversin a comprehensive wayall three dimensions.However,no mentionis madeofclimatechange,migration orhuman traffickingaffected bycovid-
19.54The pandemichas animpact on the OSCEscooperation with partnerStates,as eventsare heldonline andfinancialsupport availablethrough extra-budgetary fundsfor activitiesandprojectswithpartnerStates is二less available.Partner Stateshave aclear interestin addressingthepandemicsituation also in the OSCEcontext,although someaspects of the debateonthisissue,related to the thirddimension and to theuse ofemergencymeasures,may besensitive tosome of them.The nextannual Asianpartners conference,hostedby Thailand,is expectedto focuson globalhealth inacomprehensive security format and onlessonslearned,including fromASEAN.55——
5.The wayforward onnew challenges and comprehensivesecurity一Despite theground-breaking comprehensivesecurity legacyof the OSCE,the Organizationhas notemergedasa leading internationalor regionalentity when it comes to addressingcomprehensive securityin the post-Cold Warera.56Its potentialcould beused togreater effect.57,evacuation ofstaff.In somecases,a MEDEVAC mechanismhad to be establishedas localhealth systemswere unableto copewiththe covidchallenges.In certainmissions,the OSCEstaff has been reducedup to40-50per centin theirrespective areas ofresponsibility.54OSCE Ministerial Council,Statement by the Chairperson...”,in Final Document of the Twenty-Seventh Meeting of theMinisterial Council,Tirana,3-4December2020,p.47-50,.org/node/
481447.“Monika Wohlfeld,Security SectorReform in the MENARegion:The Impact of.the CoronavirusPandemic”,in StephenCalleyaed.,Towards aPost PandemicEuro-Mediterranean Strategy,June2020,_data/assets/pdLfile/0005/448655/Towardsapostpandemiceuro-med.pdf.’6Pal Dunay,“The OSCE in Crisis”,cit.7Walter Kemp,“The OSCE:Entering ItsThird Phasein ItsThird Decade”,in HelsinkiMonitor,Vol.15,No.42004,p.254-262;Roberto Dominguez,The OSCE:Soft Securityfor aHard World.Brussels,Peter Lang,
2014.Addressing new challenges across all dimensionsis verymuch partof theDNA of the OSCE.Nevertheless,as the three dimensionsrest ondifferent institutionalprovisions,there aredifficulties indelivering asone^^when itcomes topolicyandproject implementation.Coordinating platforms,focal pointnetworksor specialrepresentatives mustsupport theefforts.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZHowever,implementation of comprehensive policiesdoes notjust hingeupon technicalcoordination.Thepolitical agendasof someparticipating Statesaim atminimising thehuman dimensionof the OSCEsengagements andfavour the first andsecond dimensions.This hasprogrammatic implications.As astopgaptothis,some Westernstates turntowards financingextra-budgetary projects in thehumandimension areathat requireno consensusbytheparticipating States.To give an example,somelike-minded states including theUS andWestern Europeanstates arefunding extrabudgetaryprojectsrelated toborder securitymanagement andcountering human traffickinginCentral Asiancountriesbordering Afghanistan.二There isno doubtthat allinternational institutionsand organisationsare compelledto addressglobal newchallengestoday.As other organisations havealso developedbroadened anddeepened approaches tosecurity andhave takenover partsof thecomprehensivesecurityagenda,turf battlesemerge in the OSCEarea.But thepressing issuespresented bynew challengesrequire coordinatedinput fromall actors.As aconsequence,the OSCEhas beenseeking nicheactivitiesandcollaborative frameworkswith relevantorganisations.——The keyOSCE documentin thatrespect is the1999Platform for Co-operative Securitywhich givestheOSCE awide rolein fosteringcoordinated approaches.While muchhas beendone tocollaborate with58otherorganisations,more canbe doneto arriveat coordinatedapproaches.As Sandra Sacchetti suggests,a一more pragmaticapproach towardsthe Platformcouldhelpsurmount some of thecomplex politicaldynamicshampering itsfull implementation,\59*1,rThe comparativeadvantage of the OSCElies inits agenda-setting capacity.For example,the OSCE60managed torapidly developbuy-in totheglobalcounterterrorism agendaby addressingviolent extremismandterrorism regionally.In particular,the OSCEcould reviewits experience of theearly implementationof the Platformwhich includeda seriesof eventsbringing togethersubregional organisations in the OSCEarea onissues such as counterterrorismefforts.For thepurpose ofimproving programmaticandoperational coordination,the OSCEhas concludedseveral arrangementswith otherorganisations.TheMemorandum of58・.,OSCE Ministerial Council,Operational Document-the Platform forCo-operative Security,in IstanbulDocument,19November1999,p.43-45,.SQSandra Sacchetti,uThe OSCEsPlatform forCo-operative Security,cit.“See alsoWolfgang Zellner,uOld and New Challengesfor the OSCE”,in IFSH,OSCE Yearbook2016,Baden-Baden,Nomos,2017,p.33-44,https://ifsh.de/file/publication/OSCE_Yearbook_en/2016/Zellner-en.pdf.Understanding between the OSCE and theUN DevelopmentProgram,for instance,covers abroadspectrum ofactivities,ranging fromarms controlto anti-corruption andhuman rights©Although the OSCEisnot adevelopment orhumanitarian organisation,it shouldseek tolink itswork totheglobal narrativeand acquison humansecurity andsustainable development.As allparticipating statesof the OSCE are membersof theUnited Nations,they allhave nationalagendas contributingto sustainableIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zdevelopment.The OSCEcan providethe regionalcollaborative frameworkfor suchefforts.Risks and threats thatareofimportance toboth the OSCE participating States and its partners aretransnational and global innature.Such common security concernsshould beaddressed in acomprehensive andjoint fashion.However,the OSCEAsian and Mediterranean partnerships,while usefuloverall,are notdeveloping intooperational forathat would allow OSCE participating Statesto tacklesuchjoint challenges.This is partly a result of the factthat keyactors foreither dialogueChina,Libya,but alsoPalestine,Lebanon andSyria are not includedin thesepartnerships.Thus,a reviewof theoutreachprinciples shouldbe undertaken.二One ideathat has been floatedand doesdeserve attentionis tonegotiate individualaction planswithpartner States,reflecting theirdifferent needsand expectationsand structuringa multi-year framework.Such actionplans couldfocusonjoint approachesto commonnew challenges.Individual actionplanswould have to bedeveloped inparallel toregional efforts,and wouldhaveto beatransparent process,—conducive tothe goalsof the OSCEs partnerships.Overcoming limitationson implementationprojectsin—partnerStateswould goa longway towardsmaking themmore sustainableand relevantfor thoseStates.I1,Another interestingbut littlepublicised ideahasbeenput forwardby Malta,which hassuggested thecreationofan OSCE Centre of Excellencefor Mediterraneanpartners in Malta.The ideawas62r一to allowfor bundlingefforts andresources andharnessing theparticipating States5and partnerStatesshared interestin pursuingspecific specialisedevents andprojects,in the realm ofrule oflaw,justice andthe fightagainstterrorism.The discussionon theproposal for anOSCECentreofExcellence wasabortedat anearly stage,but sucha Centrecould allowfor focusingand strategisingas well as enhancingefforts intheseimportant realmsorthebroader context of new challengesandcouldalsoinvolve Asianpartners.A numberofOSCEdocuments refertotheneedtobroaden dialogueon specificissues withregionalorganisations beyondthe OSCE area.This includesthe63MOU betweenUNDP andOSCE from27September
2018.OSCE Secretary General,Welcoming Remarksby AmbassadorLamberto Zannier,OSCE Secretary General,Rome,18September2014,.63See forexample OSCE Ministerial Council,6tThe BucharestPlan ofAction forCombatingOrganisation of the IslamicConference,the Leagueof ArabStates and the AfricanUnion,but alsoASEANand theASEANRegionalForum.Better linkswith theseregional organisationswouldallowfordialogue onaregion-to-region basis;givearole to partnerStates;and allowfor communicationwith Statesthatare notpartof the twodialogues.ConclusionFaith inmultilateralism isat stake,if security institutions donot finda wayto dealwith new challenges.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZThe rapidtransformation of the securityenvironment andcomplex threatscenarios reflectingthe rapiddevelopmentof new security challengesrequire extraordinaryleadership bytheOSCE Chairs,supported constructivelyby participating States and the ExecutiveStructures tonavigate inthemurky watersof todaysinternational affairs.The OSCEcould bea veryuseful tooltoaddress the entirespectrum of new challengesfor its participatingStates.Its comparativeadvantage isits comprehensiveapproach,taking intoaccount itspolitico-military,economic andenvironmental,andhumanrights aspects.These includeits uniqueacquis intransparencyand confidencebuilding measureagreements.The recentagreements onthree clustersof cyberCBMs areanexample,as is the roleof the OSCEinelection observationacross the OSCE area.The notionof electionintegrityin faceof newtechnologies requiresa wholenew approach to comprehensivesecurity,thatincludes counteringhate speechand cyberthreats andother abuseof digital technology thatthreatensdemocratic governance.ODIHR iswell positionedto takethe leadin movingthis agendaahead.Anotherexample isthe strongperformance of theOSCEin counteringhumantraffickingthat islinkedtoabuse ofdigitaltechnology andto irregularmigration.The OSCEshould leveragemore itsChapter VIIIstatusunder theUNCharterwhenitcomestoagenda-setting on countering globalnew challenges.A modicumof sharedunderstanding isneeded tofacilitate cooperationamong“non like-minded4states“in theOSCE tosuccessfully addressthe obstacleshampering theeffective implementationof acomprehensiveapproach tonew challenges.64This includesa commitment to providingtheOSCEwithmore adequateresources.Terrorism”,in FinalDocument of the Ninth Meeting of theOSCE MinisterialCouncil,Bucharest,3-4December2001,p.8-13,;OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurity andStability...,cit.;Declaration onCo-operation with the MediterraneanPartnersMC.DOC/9/14,5December2014,;and Document Nr.4,Declaration onSecurity andCo-operation in the Mediterranean MC.DOC/4/18,/December2018,https:〃.64An expertgroup of the Wilson Center recentlyaddressed waysto overcomethe uncommoncause withdisparate interestsandoften-conflicting claims,,among OSCE participating States.Wilson Center,Uncommon Cause:The Futureof theOSCE”,inTransAtlantic Series,No.2February2021,p.2,.Comprehensive Security and NewChallenges:Strengtheningthe OSCEbyMonika Wohlfeldand Fred Tanner*Introduction二In todaysglobalised world,all statesand societiesface increasinglycomplex securitychallenges.Transnational and multidimensional innature,thesechallengescannot beaddressed ona nationalbasis orthroughthe prismof hardsecurity
9.Multilateral cooperativeframeworks ableto assiststatesindevelopingcross-dimensional responsesare thereforerequired.——The emergenceof newsecuritychallengesin anincreasingly unstableinternational environmentpresentsnew riskstothe Organizationfor Security andCooperation inEurope OSCE.Yet,the OSCEsconcept ofcomprehensivesecurity continuestoberelevant toaddress such challenges,both within theOSCEarea andinneighbouring regions,including in thecontext of the OSCEs AsianandMediterraneanpartners.Theanalysis drawson casestudies thatshed lightonthe OSCEs effortstoaddressnewsecuritychallenges.一These includea focuson cross-dimensional risks and threatsfrom digitaltechnology;the fightagainst hatecrimeonsocialmedia;the nexusbetween climatechange,development andsecurity;migration andhumantrafficking;and thecovid-19pandemic.Finally,it providesan assessmentof theeffectiveness of theOSCEs comprehensivesecurity frameworkin addressingsuchchallengesand discusseshow theOSCEtshould bestrengthened to better respondtotheneeds ofitsparticipatingand partnerStates in therMediterranean andAsia.Monika Wohlfeldistheholder of the Chairin PeaceStudies andConflict Prevention,established at the MediterraneanAcademyof DiplomaticStudies MEDACinMaltabytheGerman Ministry of Foreign Affairs.FredTanner,Ambassador ret.is cuirentlyaResearch AssociateattheCentre onConflict,DevelopmentPeacebuilding,the GraduateInstitute andan AssociateFellow attheGeneva Centrefor SecurityPolicy GCSP.,This paperwas preparedinthecontextof the New-Med ResearchNetwork,a projectrun bythe Istituto Affari Internazionali IAIwith thesupportof the ItalianMinistryofForeign Affairsand InternationalCooperation MAECI,theOSCESecretariat inViennaand theCompagnia diSan PaoloFoundation,May
2021.Views expressedare theauthors alone.The taskat handis toprepare theOSCE totakethedigital curve“and adapttothenew realitiesofaworldconfronted with the challengessuch asclimatechange,thecovid-19pandemic and migration.At thesametime,finding awayforwardon theseissues mayalso helptobetteraddressthegrowing politicaldivisionsamong theOSCE participatingStates.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZUpdated26May2021二——一IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIEO966I9ZReferencesAlexander Alekseev,“New Risksand Challengeswithin theContext ofOSCE”,in Nagao e Defesa,Vol.103,No.2Autumn2002,p.35-42,.net/
10400.26/1288CSCE,Charter ofParis fora NewEurope.Paris,21November1990,.osce.org/node/39516CSCE,Document of the CopenhagenMeeting of the ConferenceontheHuman Dimensionof theCSCE,29二二June1990,CSCE,Helsinki Final Act.1August1975,Roberto Dominguez,The OSCE:Soft Security^foraHard World,Brussels,Peter Lang,2014———Pal Dunay,The OSCEin Crisis”,in ChaillotPapers,No.88April2006p.20,https://—German FederalForeign Office,Inaugural Speechby ForeignMinister Frank-Walter Steinmeierto theOSCE Permanent Councilto Markthe Startof Germanyfs OSCE Chairmanship.14January2016,一news/160114-osze/277702一Walter Kemp,The OSCE:Entering ItsThird Phasein ItsThird Decade”,in HelsinkiMonitor.Vol.15,No.42004,p.254-262IMarietta S.Konig andCarolin Poeschke,The Asian Partnership fbrCo-operation:Concept,.Development,Trends”,in IFSH,OSCE Yearbook2017,Baden-Baden,Nomos,2018,p.265-277,https://ifsh.de/file/publication/OSCE_Yearbook_en/2017/KdnigPoeschke-en.pdf,4ODIHR,United Statesof America,General Elections,3November2020:Final Report.9February2021,OSCE,Annual Report2018,April2019,OSCE,Annual Report2019,March2020,OSCE,ImpactofEmergency Measureson HumanRights andDemocracy KeyFocus ofNewOSCE/ODIHR Report,17July2020,♦OSCE,Journal ofthe944th PlenaryMeetingofthe Forumfor SecurityCo-operation,29April2020,・OSCE,OSCEandAdelphi ConcludeFirst RegionalConsultation onClimate Changeand SecurityinSouth-Eastern Europe.23February2021,node/479314IIVVCCMMOOZZI4I46I6OIOO9SO69S688888468N1BS6INBSIE0966EI099Z66NIs9sZ1OSCEChairmanship,Address bythe Chairperson-in-Office oftheOSCE,Minister forForeignAffairs ofSweden,HE Ms.Ann LindeCIO.GAL/1/21/Corr.2,Vienna,14January2021,OSCEChairmanship,Towards ComprehensiveGovernance ofMigration andRefugee FlowsintheOSCEArea CIO.GAL/117/16,/5July2016OSCE MinisterialCouncil,The BucharestPlan ofAction forCombating Terrorism”,in FinalDocumentof theNinthMeetingoftheOSCE MinisterialCouncil.Bucharest,3-4December2001,p.8-13,OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Decision No.5/09,Migration ManagementMC.DEC/5/09,Athens,2二December2009,©OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Decision No.3/16,OSCEs RoleintheGovernance ofLarge MovementsofMigrants andRefugees MC.DEC/3/16,9December2016,—OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Decision No.5/17-Enhacing OSCEEfforts toReduce theRisk ofConflict—StemmingfromtheUseof Informationand CommunicationTechnologies MC.DEC/5/17,8December2017,一OSCE MinisterialCouncil,DeclarationonCo-operation with the MediterraneanPartnersMC.DOC/9/14,5December2014,OSCE MinisterialCouncil,DocumentNr.4,DeclarationonSecurity andCo-operation inthe1,MediterraneanMC.DOC/4/18,7December2018,.osce.org/node/406532,rOSCE MinisterialCouncil,Madrid Declarationon EnvironmentandSecurityMC.DOC/4/07,3December2007,-OSCE MinisterialCouncil,FinalDocument ofthe Twenty-Third MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil.Hamburg,8-9December2016,node/307311OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Letter fromthe Chairperson oftheFSCtothePrimeMinisterandMinister forEuropeand ForeignAffairsofthe Republicof Albania,Chairpersonofthe27th MCMC.GAL/2/20,1December2020,.org/node/472404OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Ljubljana MinisterialDecision No.2onMigrationMC.DEC/2/05,6December2005,OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Operational Document-the Platform forCo-operative Secunty,in IstanbulDocument.19November1999,p.43-45,.org/node/39569OSCE MinisterialCouncil,OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurity andStability inthe Twenty-FirstCentury.2December2003,node/17504IVCMOZ,16I009e6888e6NSSIS0966-97Nss1OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Report bythe ChairpersonoftheContact GroupwiththeOSCEMediterranean PartnersforCo-operation tothe Twenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil”MC.GAL/5/19,in FinalDocument ofthe Twenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil.Bratislava,5-6December2019,p.56-61,https://OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Report bytheOSCEChairmanship onLarge MovementsofMigrantsandRefugees MC.GAL/8/18,9December2016,node/287871二OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Report bythe Secretary General tothe Twenty-Sixth Meetingof theMinisterialCouncil”MC.GAL/6/19,in FinalDocument ofthe Twenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil.Bratislava,5-6December2019,p.43-46,OSCE MinisterialCouncil,Statement bythe Chairperson...in FinalDocument ofthe Twenty-Seventh—MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil.Tirana,3-4December2020,p.47-50,—IOSCE MinisterialCouncil,Statement bythe RepresentativeoftheEuropean Union,in Final1•Document ofthe Twenty-Fourth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil.Vienna,7-8December2017,p.73-76,,r一OSCE Missionto BiH,Guidelines fora Strategic Cybersecurity Frameworkin Bosniaand Herzegovina,1October2019,OSCE Permanent Council,Decision No.1039of26April2012PC.DEC/1039,OSCE Permanent Council,Decision No.1106of3December2013PC.DEC/1106,OSCEPermanent Council,Decision No.1202of10March2016PC.DEC/1202,OSCE SecretaryGeneral,Inaugural Remarksatthe PermanentCouncil,SecretaryGeneralHelga MariaSchmidSEC.GAL/13/21,Vienna,21January2021,p.2,https://OSCE SecretaryGeneral,Welcoming Remarksby AmbassadorLamberto Zannier,OSCE SecretaryGeneral,Rome,18September2014,node/124557Sandra Sacchetti,The OSCEsPlatformforCo-operative Security”,in Security and HumanRights.Vol.25,No.12014,p.119-129UN GeneralAssembly,Developments inthe Fieldof Informationand TelecommunicationsintheContextof International Security A/RES/70/237,23December2015,https://undocs.Org/a/res/70/237UN Secretary-General,Secretary-General fsAddress tothePermanentCouncil oftheOrganizationforSecurity andCo-operation inEurope,Vienna,4November2014,UN SecurityCouncil,Resolution1540,28April2004,https://undocs.org/s/res/15402004IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZUnion for the Mediterranean,2019OSCE MediterraneanConference:Celebrating25Years oftheMediterranean PartnershipFrameworkfor Cooperation,Tirana,24-25October2019,https://ufmsecretariat.org/p=85157Peter vanHam,EU,NATO,OSCE:Interaction,Cooperation,and Confrontation,\in FranzKemic andGunther Hauser eds,European Securityin Transition,Aidershot/Burlington,Ashgate,2006,p.23-37WilsonCenter,Uncommon Cause:The FutureoftheOSCE”,in TransAtlanticSeries.No.2IFebruary2021,p.2,I二Monika Wohlfeld,OSCEs MediterraneanEngagement onthe Eveofthe40th Anniversary*of therHelsinki Final Act”,in DocumentiIAI,No.14|15December2014,4Monika Wohlfeld,Security SectorReform inthe MENARegion:The ImpactoftheCoronavirusPandemic”,in StephenCalleya ed.,Towards aPost PandemicEuro-Mediterranean Strategy,June2020,—_data/assets/pdfl file/0005/448655/Towardsapostpandemiceuro-med.pdf—Wolfgang Zellner,Old andNewChallengesfortheOSCE”,in IFSH,OSCE Yearbook2016,Baden-Baden,Nomos,2017,p.33-44,https://ifsh.de/file/publication/OSCE_Yearbook_en/2016/Zellner-en.pdf一Istituto AffanInternazionali IAITheIstitutoAffariInternazionaliIAIisaprivate,independent non-profit thinktank,founded in1965on theinitiativeof AltieroSpinelli.IAI seeksto promoteawareness ofinternational politicsandtocontribute totheadvancement of European integrationand multilateralcooperation.Its focusembraces topicsof strategicrelevancesuch asEuropean integration,security anddefence,international economicsandglobalgovernance,energy,climateand Italianforeign policy;as wellasthedynamics of cooperation andconflict inkey geographicalregions such as theMediterraneanand MiddleEast,Asia,Eurasia,Africa and the Americas.IAI publishesan English-language quarterlyTheInternational Spectator,an onlinewebzine Affarintemcizionali.three bookseries{Global PoliticsandSecurity.Quademi IAIand IAIResearch Studiesand somepapers,series relatedto IAIresearch projectsDocument!IAI,IAI Papers,etc..Via deiMontecatini,17-1-00186Rome,ItalyT+39066976831Latest IAIPAPERSDirector:Riccardo Alcaro21|23Monika WohlfeldandFredTanner,Comprehensive Security andNewChallenges:Strengthening theOSCE21|22Luca Franzaand BeniSuryadi,Natural GasinSouth-east Asia:Key Trendsand Long-term Outlook.21|21Riccardo Alcaro,The TransatlanticDimensionof Europes NuclearDiplomacy withIran:2003-2121|20Michael Tanchum,Europe-Africa Connectivity^Outlook2021:Post-Covid-19Challenges andStrategicOpportunities21|19Jean-Pierre Darnis,L Unioneeuropea traautonomia strategicae sovranitatecnologica:problemi eIVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zopportunita.21|18Nicola Bilotta,Chinas Beltand RoadInitiative inItaly:An AnalysisofFinancial Cooperation21|17Francesca Ghiretti,The Beltand RoadInitiative inItaly:The Portsof Genoaand Trieste21|16Philip Remler,The OSCEas Sisyphus:Mediation,Peace Operations,HumanRights21|15Francesca Ghiretti,Technological Competition:Can the EU Competewith China21|14Simona Autolitanoand AgnieszkaPawlowska,Europes Questfor DigitalSovereignty:GAIA-X asa CaseStudy
1.New challengesand theOSCE二Global transnationalandmultidimensionalchallenges havebeenonnationalandinternational securityagendasfor decades.After the11September2001attacks intheUnitedStates,theOSCEbegan toincreaseits focuson responses to terrorismand violentextremism.In2003the then55participatingStatesof theOrganizationadopted the“OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurity andStability inthe Twenty-FirstCentury]also calledthe MaastrichtStrategy.The Strategyspecifies thatthreats to security andstability in—theOSCEregion aretoday morelikely toarise asnegative,destabilizing consequencesof developments—that cutacrossthepolitico-military,economic andenvironmental andhuman dimensions,than fromanymajor armedconflict“and proceedsto listsomeofthem apartfrom inter-State andintra-State conflicts,terrorism,organised crime,discrimination andintolerance,certain economicfactors,environmentaldegradation andthreats ofpolitico-military nature.But thelist isnot intendedtobeexhaustive,since一threats areseen asevolving andnot alwaysforeseeable.As RussianAmbassador Alexander Alekseevargued in2002,“it isimpossible todraw upacomprehensive,all-inclusive list of newrisks andchallenges.The dynamicnature ofthe subjectprecludes astatic listing”.2Over time,priorities shifted.For example,former OSCE SecretaryGeneralThomas Gremingerargued attheOSCE MinisterialCouncil inBratislava in2019that cc[t]oday we face daunting new challenges thataffect ourcommon security:Climate change.Migration.And atechnological revolution driven bydigitalizationand artificialintelligence]The needfortheOSCEtocontinuously adapttothechangingsecurity environmenthasbeenemphasised bythe presentOSCESecretaryGeneral,Helga MariaSchmid.In January2021she pleadedfortheOSCEto“be readyto meetnew challenges-both thosewe alreadyseeon thehorizon,and thosewe cannotyet imagineTodaywefacedauntingnew challengesthataffect ourcommonsecurity:Climate change.Migration.Anda technologicalrevolutiondrivenby digitalizationand artificialintelligence.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZOSCE MinisterialCouncil,OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurity andStability inthe Twenty-First Centiuy,2December2003,p.1,.2~AlexanderAlekseev,t€New Risksand ChallengeswithintheContext ofOSCE”,in NaaoeDefesa,Vol.103,No.2Autumn2002,p.35-42,at p.39,.3rOSCE MinisterialCouncil,Report bythe SecretaryGeneral tothe Twenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil”MC.GAL/6/19,in FinalDocument ofthe Twenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil,Bratislava,5-6December2019,p.43-46,.・AOSCE SecretaryGeneral,Inaugural RemarksatthePermanentCouncil,SecretaryGeneralHelga MariaSchmidSEC.GAL/13/21,Vienna,21January2021,p.2,.
2.The OSCEs comprehensiveapproachto security二The OSCEscomprehensiveapproachto securityframes itsresponse tonew challenges.This approachdatesback tothe verybeginnings oftheHelsinkiprocess.Intheearly1970s,preparations fora ConferenceonSecurity andCo-operation inEurope CSCEbegan withactive inputsfrom both the Eastand theWest.In orderto accommodatedivergent expectations,itwasproposed that the conferenceagenda bedividedinto three“baskets,one dedicatedto political andsecurityissues,another oneto economiccooperationand athird onetohumanrights,cultural exchangesand freedomofthepress.5——The Helsinki FinalAct-a politicallyrather thanlegally bindingdocument-was signedbythe35CSCEHeads ofState orGovernment6on1August
1975.While otherorganisations ornegotiation frameworkspursueda narrowsecurity anddefence perspective,theCSCEparticipatingStatesagreed ona broadunderstanding of security,according towhich onlytherespectofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms一could leadto sustainablepeace andsecurity.As someobservers havenoted,that approachwasrevolutionary.7With theend ofthe ColdWar,asthe Soviet Unionand Yugoslaviadissolved intoa multitudeof newstates,theCSCEwas soonfaced witha verychallenging setof problems:domestic conflicts,ethnic strifeandstruggling democratisationprocesses.The operationalisationand institutionalisationoftheCSCE/OSCE,which startedinthe1990s,aimed atequipping theOrganization withthe capabilitiesneeded tocope withthesenew typesof challenges.8In2003,the MaastrichtStrategy laidout thecrucial rolethattheOSCEscomprehensivesecurity approachcouldplay indealing withnew threats.The Strategypaid particularattention tothe rootcauses ofthesenew threats,including weakgovernance,intolerance and economic disparity.9Today,theOSCEsthree“baskets or“dimensions“continue tobe viewed as beingof equalimportance andinterconnected.Thisdoes notimply,however,thatthecommitments,funding andeven structuresofthethree dimensions areequal orsimilar.The OSCEsinstitutions-the OfficeforDemocraticInstitutionsand HumanRightsTo beprecise,thefirstbasket coveredpolitical andmilitary issues,territorial integrity,the definitionof borders,peacefulsettlement ofdisputes and theimplementationof confidence-building measuresbetween opposingmilitaries.The secondbasketfocused oneconomic issueslike tradeand scientificcooperation.The thirdbasket dealtwith humanrights,including freedomofemigration andreunification offamilies dividedby internationalborders,cultural exchangesand freedomofthepress.6♦The UnitedStates,theSovietUnion,Canada andevery Europeancountry exceptAlbania.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Z°Pal Dunay,The OSCEin Crisis”,in ChaillotPapers,No.88April2006p.20,.europa.eu/node/
130.The ParisCharter1990laidthefoundation forthe institutionalisationoftheCSCE.See CSCE,Charter ofParis fora NewEurope,Paris,21November1990,.
9.OSCE MinisterialCouncil,OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurityandStability....cit.ODIHR,the HighCommissioner onNational MinoritiesandtheRepresentative onFreedom oftheMedia-are activeinthehuman dimension.The CoordinatorofOSCEEconomicandEnvironmentalActivities whoaddresses economic,social andenvironmental issuesof security,ispartoftheOSCESecretariat,as isthe ConflictPrevention Centre,responsible inter alia for political-military aspectsofsecurity.Missions orfield activitiesare theOrganizations keyinstrument in all phasesoftheconflict cycleandinallthree dimensionsof security.However,their mandates,sizes andactivities varyalthough allare二supporting hoststatesinimplementing OSCEcommitments.The OSCEParliamentary Assemblyhas abroadremit andchampions comprehensivesecurity,but hasonly anadvisory functionintheframework oftheOrganization.There aretwo decision-making bodiesbringing togetherall OSCEparticipatingStates:thePermanentCouncil andthe Forumfor SecurityCo-operation.The latteris responsiblefor thepolitical-military dimension.The representativesof participatingStates whofollow thesetwodecision-making bodiesarenotnecessarily thesame.——In addition,not all OSCEparticipatingStates areequally preparedtoaddressnew challengesinacomprehensivemanner,acrossallthreedimensions.While WesternEuropean andNorth Americanstatesemphasise thatthey aimatabalanced approachtowards alldimensions,thisisoften interpretedby others一as focusedonthehumandimensionand oftenviewedasintrusive anddiscriminatory innature.Somestates supportdeeper cooperation inaddressingnew challengessuch ascounterterrorism,while foregoingaccountabilityandhumanrights issues.These differencesin howthethreedimensionsareoperationalised as wellasthe differentprioritisation ofthemby variousparticipatingStateshave animpactontheir balanceand interactionand thusaffect theimplementationof comprehensiveapproachestonew challenges.I1•While otherinternationalactorsalso broadenedtheir approachtosecurity,andtheHuman Securityand theSustainableDevelopment GoalsSDGs agendasbecame therallying cryof therinternationalcommunity,theOSCEretained itsprimary focuson comprehensivesecurity.Indeed,acursory studyoftheSwedish Chairmanshippriorities for2021andthenew OSCESecretary Generarsprogrammaticremarks indicateaclearcommitmenttocomprehensivesecurity.In January2021,theincoming SwedishChairperson-in-Office,Swedish ForeignMinister AnnLinde,pledged touphold theconcept,highlighting theinterconnectedness betweenpoliticalandeconomic security,humanrights,therule oflaw andequality.The newOSCESecretaryGeneralHelga MariaSchmidreiterated similar10statements,H“OSCEChairmanship,Address bythe Chairperson-in-Office oftheOSCE,MinisterforForeignAffairsof Sweden,H.E.Ms.AnnLinde CIO.GAL/1/21/Corr.2,Vienna,14January2021,.osce.org/node/
475865.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZOSCE SecretaryGeneral,Inaugural RemarksatthePermanentCouncil,SecretaryGeneralHelgaMariaSchmid,cit.
3.Relations with otherinternational organisationsandneighbouring regionsWhiletheCSCE/OSCE ledthe wayin promotingacomprehensiveunderstandingof security duringtheCold War,otherinternationalorganisationsintheOSCEarea haveadopted ananalogous comprehensiveapproachtosecurityinthedecades thatfollowed.With membershipsof differentinternationalorganisations increasinglyoverlapping asaresultoftheenlargement oftheEuropeanUnion EUand theNorthAtlantic TreatyOrganisation NATO,policyagendashave lookedmore andmore similar.Both theEUand NATOhave hadconsiderably morefunding aswellasa widertoolkit ofsticks andcarrots,二including enlargement,stabilisation andassociation or partnership andcooperation agreements.At thesametime,both organisationshave alwaysemphasised theOSCEs role,its activitiesand missions,andcooperated withtheOSCEontheground.12—A cursorylook atthe thematic areas forcooperation betweentheOSCE,theEUand NATOreveals afocus—onnewchallenges.The OSCEslist ofthematicareasofcooperationwiththeEU includes,interalia,border securitymanagementandthefightagainst humantrafficking.The OSCEslistofpriorities incooperationwith NATOfocuses oncountering transnationalthreats,including terrorismandcyberthreats.13一An importantpartner fortheOSCE,alsointhe realmofnewchallenges,istheUnitedNationsUN.After9/11,cooperation cameto includetheOSCEssupportfortheUNanditsspecialised counterterrorismbodies.The sharedUN-OSCE agendaalso includesborder management,environmental andeconomicaspects of securityandanti-trafficking.In2014,in anaddress totheOSCEPermanentCouncil,then UNMSecretary-General BanKi-moon cited“civil conflicts,[...]terrorism,organized crime,illegaldrug-trafficking,and healthcrises suchas Ebola”as centralareasofcooperation fortheOSCE-UNpartnership.15rThe OSCEwas mandatedto cooperatewith otherorganisations,based onthe1999Platform forCooperative Security,agreed inIstanbul byallOSCEparticipatingStatesas partofthe Charter forEuropean Security.However,as SandraSacchetti,former OSCEHead ofExternal Co-operation,argued,the Platforms~Pal Dunay,“The OSCEin Crisis”,cit.,p.7-
8.13See forexample OSCEpartnerships9webpages:The EuropeanUnion,node/111481;and NATO,!
11485.14One exampleoftheOSCE engagementtouseits platformsand programmaticwork wasthe regionalsupport forimplementationoftheUN SecurityCouncil Resolution
15402004.This resolutionfocuses onthedomainof nonproliferationofweapons ofmass destructionto non-state actors.UN SecurityCouncil,Resolution1540,28April2004,https://und0cs.0rg/s/res/l
5402004.[5UN Secretary-General,Secretary-General sAddress tothePermanentCouncil oftheOrganizationforSecurityand11Co-operationinEurope,Vienna,4November2014,node/
196764.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Zfull potentialas aninstrument formultilateral coherence,as envisagedbythetextoftheCharter,remains unexploited[...].This isdue inpart totheOSCEsperipheral positionintheEuropeansecurity architectureandinpart tothe competitionforpoliticalinfluence andresources betweeninternationalorganizations.^Thus,relations betweentheOSCEand relevantorganisations onnewchallengescanbedescribed ascharacterisedby interaction,cooperation andconfrontation.17The principleof indivisibilityofsecuritycannot beimplemented appropriatelywithout takinginto二二consideration neighbouringregions.To thatend,theOSCEpursues relationswith fiveAsian countriesAfghanistan,Australia,Japan,the Republicof Koreaand Thailandand sixsouthern Mediterranean©countries Algeria,Egypt,Israel,Jordan,Morocco andTunisia.—The sectionofthe1975CSCE HelsinkiFinalActentitled Questionsrelating toSecurityandCooperation—intheMediterranearT statesthat securityinEuropeis closelylinked withsecurityinthe Mediterranean——area asa whole.is The2003OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurityandStability intheTwenty-First Centurycalls uponboththeMediterraneanand AsianPartnersforCooperation“tovoluntarily implementthe principlesand commitmentsoftheOSCE”.Other decisionsacknowledge the19一relevance ofboth MediterraneanandAsianpartners tothe securityoftheOSCEareaand refertotheOSCE一comprehensivesecurityapproach andcooperation inallthreedimensions.During theHamburgMinisterial Councilin2016,three decisionsoftheOSCEparticipatingStates referredtopartnerStates andallthree wererelatedtonewchallenges:counterterrorism,migrationandrefugees,connectivity andgoodgovernance andICT/cybersecurity.20ISpecialised gatheringssuchasside events,special workshopsor low-key projectsinvolving oneormore partnerStates ona numberof selectedthemes andrelatedtonewchallengeshavebeenorganised byI,theOSCE.All ofthem havebeen fundedonly byvoluntary contributionsthrough therOSCEPartnership Fund,provided mostlyby oneor moreparticipatingStatesorpartnerStates,whichaccounts fora certainlack ofcontinuity.The differentviews ofparticipatingStatesonthedesirability andviabilityof suchactivities resultedinaproviso thatthey couldbe carried out inprinciple onthe territoryofparticipating States,butnotonthatof partnerStates,unless receivinga consensusdecision byallparticipating States,a’6SandraSacchetti,The OSCEsPlatformforCo-operativeSecurity”,in SecurityandHumanRights,Vol,25,No.12014,p.119-
129.\7Peter vanHam,“EU,NATO,OSCE:Interaction,Cooperation,and Confirmation,in FranzKernic andGuntherHausereds,EuropeanSecurityin Transition,Aldershot/Burlington,Ashgate,2006,p.23-
37.CSCE,HelsinkiFinalAct,1August1975,p.36,.19OSCEMinisterialCouncil,OSCE Strategyto AddressThreats toSecurityandStability...,cit.,p.
4.”
70....-OSCEMinisterialCouncil,FinalDocumentofthe Twenty-Third MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil,Hamburg,8-9December2016,.process usuallysubject todifficult andprolonged negotiations.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9ZIVCMOZ,16I009e6888e6NSSIS0966-97Nss1There are some differencesbetweentheAsianandMediterranean OSCEpartnerships whenitcomestonew challenges.The Asianpartnersaregenerally more interested insharing theirexperienceofaddressingnew challengeswiththeOSCE communityrather thanhands-on assistance.21The Asiandialogue isfocusedon confidence-building measures,newchallengesoften referredto astransnational challengesinthis contextandeconomiccooperations aswellasthe conceptofcomprehensivesecurity.Discussionsand activitieswith Asianpartners addressissues suchas traffickingin humanbeings,cyber/IT securityandcyber diplomacy.23二The Mediterraneandialogue oftheOSCEincludes exchangesof experiencebut alsosome operationalsupportand capacitybuilding onnewchallenges.However,although numerousagreed documentsas wellasseminars andmeetings haveaddressed theMediterranean dimensionofsecurity,the substanceof thatrelationshiphasbeenemerging onlythrough apainfully slowprocess.24New challenges-especiallyterrorism,but alsocybersecurity,traffickinginhumanbeingsandmigration-aresomeofthemain themesofcooperation.25——
4.Case studiesofnewchallenges一This sectiontakes amorein-depth lookattheOSCEs responsestoasetofnew andglobal challenges,risksand threatsfacing states,societies andtheir citizens.The focuson crossdimensional risksandthreats-theabuse ofdigitaltechnology;the nexusbetweenclimatechange,development andsecurity;migration andhumantrafficking;andthecovid-19pandemic areconsidered todayby manystates asthreat multipliersandas mattersofnationalsecurity,whereas regionalorganisations suchastheOSCEarenot sufficientlyempoweredto tacklethem.Efforts to.add theserisksandthreats totheOSCEscomprehensive agendaare21-Afghanistan isan exceptioninthisregard,but itsneeds arebroader thanresponsestonewchallenges.22~~Marietta S.Konig andCarolin Poeschke,The AsianPartnership forCo-operation:Concept,Development,Trends”,in IFSH,OSCE Yearbook2017,Baden-Baden,Nomos,2018,p.265-277,atp.265,https://ifsh.de/file/publication/OSCE_Yearbook_en/2017/KdnigPoeschke-en.pdf.OSCE,Annual Report2019,March2020,p.89,;and AnnualReport2018,April2019,p.89,.一Mon汰aWohlfeld,OSCEs MediterraneanEngagement onthe Eveofthe40th AnniversaryoftheHelsinkiFinalAct”,inDocumenti IM,No.14|15December2014,.25See OSCEMinisterialCouncil,Report bythe ChairpersonoftheContact GroupwiththeOSCE MediterraneanPartners forCo-operation totheTwenty-Sixth MeetingoftheMinisterialCouncil”MC.GAL/5/19,in FinalDocumentoftheTwenty-SixthMeeting oftheMinisterialCouncil,Bratislava,5-6December2019,p.56-61,;OSCE annualreports for2018and2019,cit.;andprogrammes ofannual OSCEMediterranean Conferencesof
2020.osce.org/node/466827;2019;and2017node/
329331.met withpush-backs bysomeparticipatingStates arguingthat itwould leadtoaloss offocus,neglect oftraditionalcommitmentsandincreased competitionwithotherinternationalorganisations,suchasthe EUand NATO.The followingcasestudiesexplore inwhat areastheOSCEcould finda comparativeadvantageintheOSCEareain advancingglobal agendas.IVCMOZI46IOO9S688816NBSIE0966I9Z
4.1Cross-dimensionalrisksandthreatsofdigitaltechnologyThe politicalspace fortheOSCEto engageinthecyber domainis constrainedbytheactivities ofNATOand theEU.Since the2014NATO summitin Wales,cyber defencehasbeenrecognised asa coretask ofthealliance.NATO hasbeen reachingout tocountries acrossthe Eurasianregion,aswellas toglobalpartners^,and hasembarked onindividual programmesof cyber cooperation inthe Western Balkans andEasternEurope but also withcountries suchas Mongolia.In thisrapidly expandingprogrammatic turfof otherorganisations,theOSCEfocuses onpromoting acomprehensiveapproachtocyber security,particularly inCentral Asia,where NATOandtheEU havealimited presence.Activities includetraining oncombating cybercrime,cybersecurityawareness andworkshopswith journalistson“cyber-bullying“andhatespeech.In Bosniaand Herzegovina,the OSCEhasaleadrole amongthe internationalcommunity inbuildinga StrategicCybersecurity Framework,basedon OSCEguidelines.28OSCE activitiesoncounteringcybercrime arecoordinated withthe CouncilofEurope,butalsowith29other leadingactors.The OSCEhas developeda JointAction PlanwiththeUnitedNationsOffice onDrugsand Crime,defining jointcommitments infighting cybercrime.30IThe comparativeadvantage oftheOSCEinthecyber domainrests onits abilityto createa.comprehensiveand inclusivecybersecurityapproach thatfocuses onsoft normsetting intherealmof confidence-buildingmeasures.The creationof threegenerations ofsuch measureswas guidedbytherecommendations oftheUnited NationsGroup ofGovernmental Expertson DevelopmentsintheFieldofInformation andTelecommunicationsintheContext ofInternationalSecurity26-All EUandNATOmembers statesarealsoparticipatingStatesoftheOSCE.27The EUcarriedoutcybercooperationwith standardsetting incandidate countriesintheWesternBalkanwith cyberrequirementsbased ontheEUDirective onSecurity ofNetwork andInformation Systems.28OSCE Missionto BiH,Guidelines foraStrategicCybersecurityFrameworkin Bosniaand Herzegovina.1October2019,..
29.-As tocybercrime,the CouncilofEuropeis inthe leadon implementationoftheConvention onCybercrime,which servesas aguidelinefor anycountry developingnational legislationandcooperationin combatingcybercrime.,The Partieswill aimto undertakejoint technicalassistance activitiesfor ratificationand legislativeimplementationofthe UNTOCandthe Protocolsthereto withaspecialemphasis oncybercrime andcyber-enabled organisedcrime.。