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怎样写好英语段落一段落是文章的缩影写好了段落,就能比较成功地写出较好的文章经过中学英语基础阶段的学习之后,大学英语的写作重点就从选词造句转移到了联句成段和联段成篇上进行段落层次上的写作训练,是写好英语文章的关键一环下面介绍的是段落结构段落是由表达单一中心思想的一组句子包括主题句paragraph controlling idea orcentral idea推展句及结论句构成,是文章结构的topic sentence,supporting sentencesconcluding sentence基本独立单位本讲我们将就主题句和中心思想这两个方面展开讨论主题句与推展句
1.主题句主题句topic sentence是表达段落主题的句子它用以概括段落大意,要求全段其他文字都围绕它展开请看下例My motherhas passedalong tome certain rules forgetting alongwith others.Don,t arguewith parents;they willthink youdon,t lovethem.Don,t arguewith children;they willthink themselvesvictimized.Don,t arguewith spouses;they willthinkyou area tiresomemate.Dont arguewith strangers;they willthink youare notfriendly.My mother,s rules,in fact,can besummed upin twowords:Don,t argue.主题句中提出的〃certainrules〃指的是什么?展开句中通过四个〃Dont argue一〃逐一加以交代从结构来看,这是一个比较典型的段落,它包括了主题句,推展句和结论句即本段中的末句
1.1主题句的位置主题句通常放在段落的开端,其特点是开门见山地摆出问题,然后加以详细说明其作用是使文章的结构更清晰,更具说服力,便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用,或Body languagetransmits ideasor thoughtsby certainactions,either intentionallyorunintentionally.A nodsignifies approval,while shakingthe headindicates anegativereaction.Other forms of nonlinguisticlanguage can be foundin signalflags,Morse code,and picturesigns.在该段中为了说明topic sentence中的“various formsof communication77,作者将其分为oral speech,sign language,body languageRother formsof nonlinguisticlanguage,并逐力□阐述采用这种方法的段落并没有标志突出的连接词,所述各项均为平行并列关系,所以没有明显的主次之分
6.因果分析法cause andeffect在阐述某一现象的段落中,常采用因果分析法例如The roleof womenin today,s societyis changing.One reasonis thatwomenhave begunto assertthemselves asindependent peoplethrough thewomens movement.Also,women areaware of the alternativesto stayingat home.Another reasonis thatincreasingnumbers ofwomen whoenter newfields and interests serveas rolemodelsfor otherwomen.Moreover,men arebecoming moreconscious of the abilitiesof womenand have begunto viewtheir independencepositively.本段中,主题句提出了一种社会现象,推展句则对产生这种现象的原因作出各种解释常用于因果分析法的连接词有because,so,as aresult等
7.定义法definition在科普文章的写作中,定义法是必不可少的通过下定义,可以使读者对该事物有一个更直接的认识Automation refers to theintroduction ofelectronic controland automationoperationof productivemachinery.It reducesthe humanfactors,mental andphysical,in production,and isdesigned to make possiblethe manufactureofmore goodswith fewerworkers.The developmentof automationin Americanindustryhas been called the“Second IndustrialRevolution”.这一段文字使我们了解了automation和Second IndustrialRevolution”两个概念,分别由refersto和beencalled”引出常出现在定义法中的词语有refer to,mean,call等
8.重复法repetition句子的一部分反复出现在段落中,这就是重复法它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛,使文章结构紧凑,有感染力比如Since thattime,which isfar enoughaway fromnow,I haveoften thoughtthatfew peopleknow whatsecrecy there is in the young,under terror.I wasin mortalterror of theyoung manwho wantedmy heartand liver;I wasin mortalterror ofmyinterlocutor withthe ironleg;I wasin mortalterror ofmyself,from whomanawful promisehad beenextracted;一一该段中反复应用了I wasin mortalterrorof…我经常处于恐怖之中以上,我们结合具体文章讨论了展开段落的几种方法在实际写作中,我们往往不必拘泥于一种写作方法,而是将若干方法穿插在一起,使文章有声有色结尾段我们知道文章的开头很重要,因为好的开头可以吸引读者、抓住读者的注意力同样,文章的结尾也很重要,好的结尾会使读者对全文的中心思想留下深刻的印象,可以增添文章的效果和说服力,让人深思,回味无穷确切地说,结尾的作用就是概括全文内容,进一步强调或肯定文章的中心思想,使读者加深印象;有时也用于展望未来,提出今后方向或令人深思的问题给读者留下回味和思考的余地但是,如何才能写好英文短文的结尾呢?下面就介绍几种写结尾段最常用的方法
1.重复中心思想回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上,达到再次肯定和强调的效果(例1)A senseof humoris reallyone of the keysto happiness.Itgives zestto lifetomakeit worthliving.(例2)With all these benefits,it isno wonderthat sportsand gameshavenow becomemore popularwith peoplethan ever.
2.作出结论文章最后用几句话概括全文内容,并进一步肯定文章的中心思想或作者的观点(例1)In conclusion,a goodteacher-student relationshipcan bemutualbeneficial.The studentsgain knowledgeeagerly andenjoyably,andthe teachergains satisfactionfrom hisjob.(例2)On thewhole thereare moreadvantages thandisadvantages intheuse ofTV.Yet differentpeople mayhave differentattitude towardTV.But wemust realizethat televisionin itselfis neithergood norbad.Itsvalue topeople and society dependson howwe lookat it.
3.应用引语用格言、谚语或习语总结全文,既言简意赅又有更强的说服力(例1)If you have anythingto do,try todo ityourself,for thatis the safestway topermanentsuccess.Remember thefamous saying.〃God helpsthose whohelp themselves.z,(例2)If westick tostudies dayafter day,thereisnothing thatcan,tbe achieved.As anold sayinggoes:Constant droppingof waterwears awayastone.〃
4.用反问结尾虽然形式是问句,但意义却是肯定的,具有明显的强调作用,引起读者思考(例1)Therefore,listening skillsmust beconsciously improved.Since itissuch animportant meansof learningand communication,why shouldwe notdevelopthis abilityas faras possible(例2)So,what canwe benefitfrom wealthif wedo nothave health
5.提出展望或期望表示对将来的展望或期待读者投入行动(例1)I amsure thatChinese willbecome one of the most importantlanguagesin the world in the nextcentury.As Chinawill openfurther to the outsideworldthe languageis sureto bespread worldwidely.(例2)If everyonehas developedgood manners,people willform amoreharmonious relation.If everyonebehaves consideratelytowards othersand socialethicspeople willlive ina betterworld.With thegeneral moodof societyimproved,there willbe aprogress ofcivilization.以上介绍了几种写结尾段最常用的方法,但到底选择何种方法结尾还得根据文体来决定平铺直叙的记叙文,往往在故事或事实情节讲完时文章也就自然结束了,而说理性和逻辑性较强的说明文和议论文都应有一个正式的结尾希望以上介绍的几种方法能对大家写好结尾有所帮助首先,一个段落必须有一个中心即主题思想,该中心由主题句特别是其中的题旨来表达整个段落必须紧扣这个主题(stick orhold to the topic),这就是段落的统一性(unity)其次,一个段落必须有若干推展句,使主题思想得到充分展开,从而给读者一个完整的感觉,这就是完整性completeness oradequateness再者,一o个段落不是杂乱无章的,而是有机的组合,句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑,从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅smooth,这就是连贯性coherence下面我们就对这三个标准分别加以说明
1.统一性一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一个中心,任何游离于中心思想之外的句子都是不可取的请看下例Joe and I decided to take the longtrip wedalways wantedacross the country.We werelike youngkids buyingour camperand stockingit withall thenecessitiesof life.Bella bakesthe bestrhubarb pie.We startedout inearly springfromMinneapolis andheaded westacross thenorthern partof thecountry.We bothenjoyedthose peoplewe metat thetrailer park.Joe receiveda watch at his retirement dinner.To oursurprise,we foundthat weliked thewarm southernregions very much,andso wedecidedtostay herein NewMexico.本段的主题句是段首句,controlling idea中心思想是takethelong tripacrossthecountry文中出现两个irrelevant sentences,一个是Bella bakesthe bestrhubarbpie,这一段是讲的是Joe andI,中间出现一个Bella是不合适的还有,Joereceived awatchathisretirementdinner这一句更是与主题句不相关考生在四级统考的作文卷上常常因为造出irrelevant sentences不相关语句而丢分,值得引起注意再看一个例子My nameis Roseanna,andIlike tokeep physicallyfit.I usedto weightwohundred pounds,but Ijoined theYMCA foran exerciseclass anddiet program.Inone yearI losteighty pounds.I feelmuch betterand neverwant tohave thatmuchweight onmy five-feet frameagain.I boughttwo newsuitcases lastweek.Every dayIpractice joggingthree miles,swimming fifteenlaps,lifting twenty-pound weightsandplaying tennisfor onehour.My motherwas apremature baby.本段的controlling idea是like todeep physicallyfit,但段中有两个irrelevant sentences,一个是I boughttwo newsuitcases lastweek,另一个是My motherwas apremature baby从上面两个例子可以看出,native speakers同样会造出来irrelevantsentenceso卷面上如果这种句子多了,造成偏题或离题,那问题就更严重了放在段尾起概括全段的作用但初学者比较难于掌握,因而在四级考试中,考生应尽量采用将主题句放在段落开头的写作手法例1:Our lifetoday dependsverymuchon energy.In townsand invillages,on farmsandinfactories,machines havemade lifeeasier thanit usedto be.Themachines useenergy,and energyis neededfor heating,lighting,communications,carrying goods--everything.Factories andindustrial plantsuse agreat dealofenergy tomake the things thatwe useand buyand sell.这段文字所讲的主要是能源问题第一句就概括性地提出“我们目前的生活很大程度上依赖于能源”而随后出现的三句都是具体事例,对第一句进行说明和论述我们可以断定第一句为该段的主题句(斜体部分)例2:(主题句)No one can avoidbeing influencedby advertisements.(推展句1)Much aswe maypride ourselveson ourgood taste,we areno longerfreeto choosethethingswe want,for advertisingexerts asubtle influenceon us.(推展句2)In theirefforts topersuade usto buythis orthat product,advertisershave madea closestudy ofhuman natureandhaveclassified allour littleweakness.以上这段由三句话组成第一句是主题句,直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题,接着列举两个推展句对其补充和支持,指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品,理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理,并完全掌握了我们的弱点句子衔接自然,步步紧扣主题
1.2如何写好主题句中的关键词段落的主题句对主题的限定主要是通过句中的关键词来表现的关键词要尽量写得具体些对“具体”的要求包括两个方面一是要具体到能控制和限制段落的发展;二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法准确地把握关键词是清楚地表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一在上面的例1,例2中,主题句的关键词分别为dependsvery muchon energy;no onecan avoidbeing influenced.我们再看下列例句原句1:He can fix a bicycle himself.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容,并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法展开,是用因果关系法还是用分类法?修正He canfix abicycle himselfin severalsimple steps.修正There areseveral reasonswhy hecanfixabicyclehimself.原句2:She tries to improve her looks.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词她试着改变她面容的理由是什么?或者她采取什么方法来改善呢?我们无法从关键词中清楚得知修正She triesmany waysto improveher looks.修正There aresome reasonswhy shetriestoimproveherlookso
1.3如何写好主题句的中心思想主题句由两部分组成,即主题topic和中心思想controlling idea中心思想o的作用是导向control和制约limit我们前面谈到的关键词就反映了中心思想所谓导向就是规定段落的发展脉络,所谓制约就是限制主题的覆盖范围,两者不可分割没有导向,内容就会离题或偏题;没有制约,内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围对于初学写作的人来说,“导向”的重要性容易理解,但如果由他们自己来构思一个主题句,就可能忽视“制约”这一面例如There aretwo waysin whichonecanown abook.The firstis thepropertyright youestablish bypaying forit,just asyouhavemade ita partofyourself andthe bestway tomake yourselfa partof itis bywriting in it.本段的主题句如果没有in which引出的定语从句,那么two ways不仅不能起制约作用,而且也不能起导向作用,句子本身读起来也就使人觉得欠缺点什么Exercise isbeneficial to your heart.A22-year studywas conductedby doctorsinCalifornia.They foundthat peoplewho workat physicaljobs experiencefewerheart attacksthan otherpeople.These activepeople workallthetime atmoderatespeeds,their dailyroutine givesthem anadequate amount of exerciseand helpsthemstay inshape.“Exercise isbeneficial〃这是毫无疑义的但主题句中如不加上〃toyourheart〃来加以control和limit,那就流于空泛因此,紧紧把握主题句中controllingidea的导向和制约作用,是短文写作成功关键之一
2.推展句
2.1主要推展句主要推展句(major supportingstatement)的主要特点是围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明,句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的例1(主题句)There areseveral factorsaffecting climate.(推展句l)0ne factoristhemountofsunlight received.(推展句2)Altitude,or theheightabove sealevel,also determinesclimate.(推展句3)The oceanshave aneffecton theclimate ofadjacent land.(推展句4)In addition,climate isinfluencedby thegeneral circulationof theatmosphere.主题句指出影响气候的几个因素然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素第一种是太阳光的接收量,第二种是海拔高度,第三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素
2.2次要推展句次要推展句(minor supportingstatement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明它从属于某一个或某几个推展句例2(主题句)I dontteach becauseteaching iseasy forme.(主要推展句l)Teaching isthemostdifficult ofthe variousways Ihave attemptedto earnmyliving:mechanic,carpenter,writer.(主要推展句2)For me,teaching is a red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomach profession.(次要推展句1)Red-eye,because Ineverfeel readyto teachno matterhow lateI stayup preparing.(次要推展句2)Sweaty-palm,because Imalways nervousbefore Ienter theclassroom,sure thatI willbe foundoutfor thefool thatI am.(次要推展句3)Sinking-stomach,because Ileave theclassroom anhour laterconvinced thatIwas evenmore boringthan usual.从属于主要推展句2的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用,分别解释red-eye,sweaty-palm,sinking-stomach的含义,这就更加形象生动地证明了teaching isnoteasy”这个主题
2.3主要推展句与次要推展句的关系主要推展句与次要推展句的关系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的“三部分”(three-part)规则1)每个主要推展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明2)每个次要推展句都应该说明它的主要推展句3)含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要推展素材,又要有次要推展素材
2.4写好推展句的方法主题句及关键词确定后,开始选择和主题有关的信息和素材实质上,针对关键词测试每一个所选择的素材就是一个分类的过程有一种常用的方法就是句子展开前加以设问,然后解答,即设问一解答(why-because)的方法下面我们通过举例来看一看这种分类过程是如何完成的例3假设(suppose)Topic sentence:English isan internationallanguage设问(why)Why canwe sayEnglish isan internationallanguage解答becauseBecause:English isspoken bypilots andairport controloperators on all theairwaysofthe world.Because:Over70percent oftheworld,s mailis writtenin English.Because:More than60percent oftheworld,s radioprograms arein English.Because:Pakistan wasonce oneoftheBritish colonies.Because:Many membersoftheInternational LanguageSociety areselected fromEnglish-spoken countries.从上面可以看出,最初的三个推展句是和关键词an internationallanguage一致的第四句和主题句不统一,尽管第四句会成为另一主题句Many PakistanisspeakEnglish很好的推展句第五句说服力不强当然,在写成段落时,没有必要在每个句子开头写上because”,但是,在动笔展开句子时,头脑里要想着这个词,这种检验方法能帮助你把注意力集中在某个重心,围绕主题思想层层展开上面我们讨论了主要推展句的一种展开方法而展开次要推展句的方法与主要推展句类似,这里我们就不再复述了怎样写好英语段落二段落发展的手段及结尾段的写法在上一讲我们讲了主题句,推展句的写法;这一讲我们要进一步来谈一谈段落发展的几种手段以及结尾段的写法段落发展的几种手段
1.列举法details作者运用列举法,是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释,列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行Yesterday wasoneofthose awfuldays forme wheneverything Idid wentwrong.First,I didn,t hearmy alarmclock andarrived latefor work.Then,I didn,t readmydiary properlyand forgotto getto animportant meetingwith myboss.Duringthe coffee break,I droppedmy coffeecup andspoilt mynew skirt.At lunchtime,I left my purseonabus andlost allthe moneythat wasinit.After lunch,my bosswasangry becauseT hadn,t gonetothemeeting.Then Ididn,t noticea signon adoorthat said〃Wet PaintandsoI spoiltmy jackettoo.When Igot homeI couldntgetinto myflat becauseI hadleftmykey inmy office.So Ibroke awindow togetin andcut myhand.根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything Idid wentwrong,作者列举了8点内容,分别由first,then,during thecoffeebreak,after lunchtime等连接词语引出,使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯常用于列举法的过渡连接词有for onething,for another,finally,besides,moreover,one another,still another,first,second,also等
2.举例法example作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容,严格地讲,举例法也是列举法的一种,它们的区别在于列举法侧重罗列事实,所列事实力求全面;而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者观点,且事例可多可少我们来看下面这个用举例法展开的段落There aremany different formsof exercises tosuit differenttastes.Forexample,those whoenjoy competitivesports maytake upball games.For anotherexample,if theyprefer toexercise alone,they canhave arun ortake awalk inthemorning orin theevening.Besides,people cango swimminginthesummer andgoskating inthe winter.In short,no matterwhat theirinterests are,people canalwaysfind morethan onesports thatare suitableto them.本段采用了三个事例来说明主题句中的关键词组differentformsofexercises,这三个例子分别由连接词for example,for anotherexample和besides引出,最后由引导的结尾句总结全段内容举例法中常用的连接词有:for exampleinstance,one exampleis,besides,furthermore,moreover,in addition等
3.叙述法narration叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序,通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用,有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段用这种方法展开段落,作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末,从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义,例如In the flat opposite,a womanheard thenoise outside.When shelooked outthroughthe window,she discoveredthat herneighbor wasthreatened bysomeone.Sheimmediately calledthe policestation.In answertothecall,a patrolpolice cararrivedat thescene ofthe crimequickly.Three policemenwent insidetheflatatonce,and othersguarded outsidethe buildingto preventanyone fromescaping.这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序,叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程全文脉络清晰,叙述的层次感强,结构紧凑常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有first,an thebeginning,to startwith,after that,later,then,afterwards,intheend,finally等
4.对比法或比较法comparisoncontrast将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法通过对比,更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点,例如The heartof anelectronic computerlies inits vacuumtubes,or transistors.Its electroniccircuits worka thousandtimes fasterthan thenicer cellsin thehumanbrain.A problemthat mighttake ahuman beinga longtime tosolve canbesolved bya computerin oneminute.在这段文字上,作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快,首先将它与人脑进行了比较,〃--a thousandtimes fasterthan--〃;而后,又将这一概念具体到了〃a problem”上,通过对比使读者从〃一a longtime--in oneminute”上有更加直观的认识常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有than,compared with等
5.分类法classification在阐述某一概念的段落中,常用分类法通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类,分别加以叙述,使读者有更为清晰的认识,如Ever sincehumans havelived onthe earth,they havemade useof variousformsof communication.Generally,this expressionof thoughtsand feelingshas beeninthe formof oralspeech.When thereisalanguage barrier,communication isaccomplishedthrough signlanguage inwhich motionsstand forletters,words andideas.Tourists andthe peopleunable tohear orspeak havehad toresort tothisform ofexpression.Many ofthese symbolsof wholewords arevery vividand exactandcanbeused internationally;spelling,however,cannot.。