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1.Reading—FogFog warningWhenPolly lefthome thatmorning,the city was alreadycovered in a greymist.At lunch,the radioforecastthat themist wouldbecome athick fogin theafternoon.At fouroclock,Polly leftwork andsteppedout into the fog.She wonderedif the buses wouldstill berunning.No busesto King StreetOnce outin thestreet,she walkedquickly towardsher usualbus stop.How farare yougoing9thebusconductor askedher beforehe tookher fare.King Street/said Polly.Sorry,Miss/replied the man,the truthis thatit istoo foggyfor thebus torun thatfar.Take theUndergroundto Green Park.The weathermight bebetter thereand youmight beable toget ataxi/A tallmanAs Pollyobserved thepassengers onthe train,she had a feelingthat she was beingwatched bya tallmaninadark overcoat.At lastthe trainarrived atGreenParkstation.While therest of the passengersweregetting out,she glancedat thefaces aroundher.The tallman wasnowhere to be seen.FootstepsWhen Pollygot tothe stationentrance,it wasempty.Outside,wherever shelooked thefog laylikea thick,grey cloud.There wasno onein sight.Polly setoff towardsPark Street.As shewalked alongthenarrow street,she heard the sound of footstepsapproaching,but by the timeshe reachedthe cornerof thestreet,the footstepswere gone.Suddenly Pollyfelt arough handbrush hercheek,and sheheard a mansvoice inher earsaying Sorry/The manmoved away.She couldfeel herheart beatingwith fear.The helpfulstrangerThen sheheardthesound again-soft footstepsbehind her.A minutebefore,she hadwished forsomeoneto comealong.Now shewanted torun,but fearheld herstill.The footstepsseemed closenow.Then amans voicecame out of the darkness.Us anybodythere9Polly hesitated.At lastshe answered,Hello,I thinkIm lost.A fewseconds later,a handreached outand graspedher arm.Polly foundherself staringup at theface of an oldman witha beard.Maybe I can helpyou.Which roaddo youwant Heasked.CI liveat86King Street/Poly replied.Just takemy hand/said theman.Come withme.Youll beall right/He tookPollys hand.Watchout for the stephere/In hisother hand themancarried astick.Polly heardit hitthe step.’Icanremember someterriblefogs,but maybethat wasbefore yourtime.I cantsee yourface,but yousound young.How oldare youJusttwenty/answered Polly.Ah,twenty!A niceage tobe!I was young once.Now wereatthecrossroads.Turn lefthere/Im quitelost now.Are yousure youknow theway Pollywas beginningto feelfrightened again.Of course.You reallyshouldnt feelanxious/He heldher handmore firmly.The gratefulhelperHere we are.KingStreet/He stopped.Thank youso muchfor comingto myaid/said Pollyin relief.Would youlike to come inand restfor a while9Its verynice ofyou/said theman,but Illbe off.There maybe morepeople losttoday,and rdliketo helpthem.You see,a fogthis badis rare.It givesme thechance topay backthe helpthat peoplegiveme whenits sunny.A blindperson likeme cantget across the roadwithout help,except ina fbglike this/
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1.Project1Shark attacks一There arenearly400different typesof sharks,but onlyabout30types areknown to have attackedhumanbeings.Many peopleknow that the mostdangerous sharkis thegreat whiteshark,mainly becausetheyhave seenthe movieJaws.However,two othersharks arealso ratherdangerous:the tigershark andthebull shark.Contrary towhat manypeople mightassume,evidence showsthat sharksseldom attackhumans.There arethree typesof shark attacks.In themain type,the shark attacks youbecause itmistakes youfora fish,but whenit tasteshuman fleshit decidesto giveup andswim away.In thesecond type,the sharkpushesyou withits noseto findout ifyou arefit tobe eaten,and thenbites youif itthinks you are.In thethirdtype,the sharkwaits foryou toswim by,and thenattacks yousuddenly.The lasttwo typesof attackmoreoften resultin thedeath ofhumans.To reducethe riskof asharkattack,you shouldfollow thesesuggestions.Do notswim in thedark.Sharks can still seeyou butyou cannot see them.■Do notgo swimmingin theocean ifyou havea freshwound.Sharks cansmell bloodover alongdistance.■Do notwear brightclothing orjewellery,because sharksare attractedtotheflash ofcolors andbrightobjects.■Stay ingroups,as sharksusually avoidlarge numbersof people.Recently,sharkattackshave beenincreasing aswater sportsare becomingmore popular.If asharkattacks you,follow theadvice below.■Keep calm.Do notpanic.■Hit theshark onthe nosewith yourfist.■Stick yourfinger in the sharkseye.Dont befrightened bysharks:youare30times morelikely tobe hitby lightningthan beattacked byashark.
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1.Project2The wonderfulworld ofpigeons一It isnight.All isquiet.The soldiersare asleepwhile aguard watchesfor theenemy.There isa flash,and thesoundofguns!They arebeing attacked!Hundreds ofenemy soldiersrush towardsthem.Theyare allgoing tobe killedunless theyget help.What shouldthey doAnofficer writesa shortmessage quicklyon asmall pieceof paper:Being attacked!Hurry!1He rollsup thepaper andputs itinto asmall case,and thenreaches into a cageand getsa bird.Attaching themessage toits leg,he setsthe birdloose.It immediatelyflies into the airand disappearsinthe dark.Will the bird arrivein timeWill theybe savedThoughit mayseem hardto believe,thebirdthe officeruses isthe samebird oftenseen inpublicparks-the pigeon.Pigeons havea wonderfulsense ofdirection and can findtheir wayhome overlongdistances.Indeed,pigeons have been knownto flyhome from as faraway as1,800kilometres.That iswhypigeons have been usedsince ancienttimes tocarry thenews oreven themail.However,it wasinwar thatthey foundtheir greatestuse.During bothWorld WarI andII,pigeons wereemployed byarmiesto carrymessages toand from the frontlines,saving thelives ofmany soldiersand evenhelping winsomeimportant victories.How dopigeons findtheir wayPigeons appear to havea compassinside themthat tellsthem whichwayis north.How thiscompass worksremains amystery.Of course,since acompass aloneis notenoughto findones way,they alsoappeartouse theirsight andeven theirsense ofsmell totell themwhichway they should go.Unlike humans,they neverget lostandcanalways findtheir wayhome.
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2.Reading-English and its historyAllthrough history,people frommany differentcountries andcultures havelived togetherin Britain.The English language ismade upof thegrammar andvocabulary thesepeople broughtto Britain.That iswhyEnglish hasso manydifficult rulesthat confusepeople.Old EnglishOld English isvery differentfrom the English wespeak nowadays.In fact,we wouldnot beable tounderstandit ifwe heardit today.Before the middle of the5th century,people inBritain allspoke alanguagecalled Celtic.Then twoGermanic groupsfrom theEuropean mainland the anglesandthe一Saxons-occupied Britain.Old Englishconsisted of a mixtureof their languages.Both the Englishlanguage andthe Englishpeople arenamed after the angles;the wordAngle wasspelt Englein oldEnglish.Aside fromplace namessuch asLondon,very fewCeltic wordsbecame partof oldEnglish.Atthe end of the9th century,the Vikings,people fromNorthern Europeancountries such as DenmarkandNorway,began tomove toBritain.They broughtwith themtheirlanguages,which alsomixed withOldEnglish.By the10th century,Old English had becomethe officiallanguage of England.When wespeak Englishtoday,we sometimesfeel puzzledabout whichwords orphrases touse.This isbecause Englishhas manywords andphrases fromdifferent languages,but withsimilar meanings.For example,the wordsick came fromaword onceused bythe AnglesandtheSaxons,while illcamefrom aword onceused bythe Norwegians.Middle EnglishMiddle English isthe namegiven totheEnglishused fromaround the12th tothe15th centuries.Many thingsplayed apart in the developmentof thisnew typeof English.The mostimportantcontribution wasfrom the Normans,a French-speaking people who defeatedEngland andtook controlofthe countryin
1066.However,theNorman Conquest didnot affectEnglish asmuch asthe Anglesandthe Saxons9victory about600years earlier,which ledto oldEnglish replacingCeltic.Even thoughtheNormans spoke French for the entire250years theyruled English,French didnot replaceEnglish asthefirst language.On the other hand,theEnglishlanguage didborrow manywords fromFrench.Thisresulted ineven morewords withsimilar meanings,such as answer fromOld Englishand replyfromOld French.It isinteresting tolearn howthe wordsfor animalsand meatdeveloped.After theNormanConquest,many Englishpeople workedas servantswho raisedanimals.Therefore,the wordswe useformost animalsraised forfood such as cow,sheep andpig,came fromOldEnglish.However,the wordsforthe meatof theseanimals,which wasserved tothe Normans,camefromOld French:beef,mutton,porkand bacon.Old Frenchmade othercontributions toMiddleEnglishas well.In OldEnglish,the Germanicwayof makingwords pluralwas used.For example,they saidhousen insteadof houses,and shoeninstead ofshoes.After theNormans tookcontrol theybegan usingthe Frenchway ofmaking plurals,adding an-sto houseand shoe.Only afew wordskept theirGermanic pluralforms,suchasman/men andchild/children.After theNormanConquest,high-class people spokeFrenchwhile commonpeoplespokeEnglish.However,bythelatter halfof the14th century,Englishhadcome intowidespread useamong allclasses inEngland.In1399,Henry IVbecame KingofEngland.His mothertongue wasEnglish,and heusedEnglish forall officialevents.Modern EnglishModernEnglish appearedduring theRenaissance in the16th century.Because ofthis,modernEnglish includesmany Latinand Greekwords.Pronunciation alsowent throughhuge changesduringthis period.Of course,this wasnot theendof the changesin theEnglishlanguage.The questionofwhether Englishwill keepon changingin thefuture iseasy toanswer.It iscertain thatthis processwillcontinue,and peoplewill keepinventing newwords andnew waysof sayingthings.
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2.Project1The developmentof Chinese characters一The Chineselanguage differsfrom Westernlanguages inthat insteadof analphabet,it usescharacterswhich standfor ideas,objects ordeeds.Chinese wordsarc formedby puttingtogetherdifferent characters.In manycases,a singlecharacter canalso makeup aword.The historyof theChineselanguage can be examinedby lookingat howthese charactersdeveloped.Chinese writingbegan thousandsof years ago.According toan ancientstory,amannamedCang Jieinvented Chinesewriting.One winterday whilehe washunting,he saw the tracksof animalsinthe snowand observedthattheappearance ofeach onewas different.Then he had the idea thathe couldusedifferent shapesto representdifferent objects.The firstChinese characters were drawings of physicalobjects.Some charactershavebeensimplified andothers havebeen mademore difficultover time.However,as awhole,the charactershave developed from drawingsinto standardforms.The characterfora mountainwas atfirst threemountaintops together.This becameone mountaintopand threelines,and overtime turnedinto thecharacter usednowadays.Not allcharacterswere developedfromdrawingsofobjects.Sometimes toexpress ideas,somecharacters weremade bycombining twoor morecharacters together.For example,rest wasmade upofthe charactersforaman anda tree.The characterprisoner wasformed witha‘man insidea square.Other charactersweredevelopedfor directionsand numbers.It iseasy todistinguish theirmeanings bylookingat them,for example,the charactersfbr upand down,which areopposites ofeach other.Though thesekinds ofcharacters indicatemeanings,one of their shortcomingsis thatthey donotshow howtheyshouldbe pronounced.Therefore,a methodwas developedtohaveone partof acharacterindicate themeaning andtheothersuggest thepronunciation.Many Chinesecharacters usedtoday weremadethis way.In the1950stheChinese governmentintroduced simplifiedChinesecharactersand nowthey havewidespreaduse inChinas mainland.
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2.Project2The storyof Braille一Usually,when wetalk aboutreading,we thinkof usingour eyesto seeletters writtenin inkon paper.However,this isnot alwaystrue.For example,blind peoplecannotsee,but theycanstillread books.The manwho introducedblind people to readingwas LouisBraille1809-
1852.Braille losthiseyesight atthe age of threeasa result ofan injury.When hewas ten,he went toaschool forthe blindinParis.In thosedays,books forblind peopleused paperpressed againstmetal wireto formletters.Sincethe metalwire washeavy,each bookweighed asmuch as100pounds.The wholesystem wasnotconvenient foruse.Indeed,the schoollibrary onlyhad fourteensuch booksin it.In1821,a soldiervisited theschool andshowed thestudents asystem forpassing messagesat nightduringtimes ofbattle.His systemused paperwith small,raised dotsthat could be feltwith thefingers.Each letterof thealphabet wasrepresented bya differentpattern whichconsisted oftwelve dots.Thesoldiers woulddrag theirfingers overthe raiseddots toread themessage.While thestudents foundthe soldiersidea interesting,the systemwas toodifficult tobe ofpracticaluse.However,young LouisBraille tooktheideaand workedon it.At theage offifteen,he createdasystem withpatterns ofsix raiseddots representingeach letter.Braille,the systemfor readingusedtoday byblind peoplearound the world,was thusborn.The blindcan easilyrecognize Braille with thefingers.They canalso easilywrite inBraillewithaspecial typewriter.Today,it isthe mostcommon systemused byblind peoplefor readingand writing,and nearlyevery language,including Chinese,has itsown versionof Braillefor itspeopletouse.
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3.Reading-Lost civilizationsDay1,15JulyI feellucky tohave wona placeon thistrip.We arein Italynow,and tomorrowwe arevisitingPompeii.Next weekweareflying toChina,and goingLoulan,which isknown asChinas Pompeiiin thedesert.Both Pompeiiand Loulanbecame lostcivilizations longago.Day2J6JulyThis morningwe attendeda lectureabout Pompeii.The city was foundedin the8th centuryBC.In89BC,the Romanstook overPompeii.It thenbecame arich andbusy city.Near the citywas a volcano.On24August AD79,the volcanoerupted andlava,ash androcks pouredoutofit ontothe surroundingcountryside.It continuedto eruptforthenext twodays.Many peoplewere buried alive,and sowas thecity.How unfortunate!Day3,17JulyToday I saw theancient Romancity ofPompeii asit was2,000years ago.How amazing!The citywasforgotten formany yearsuntil the18th centurywhen afarmer discovereda stonewith writingon it.People startedto diginthe area fortreasure,which causedmuch damage.Thus,in1860,theareawas putundergovernment protectionso itcouldbepreserved andstudied.When Iwalked aroundthe city,I sawstreets justas theyhad been,with steppingstones alongtheroad soyou didnot haveto stepinthemud onrainy days!Isawseveral houseswhich weredecoratedwith wall paintings.I alsosawthepeople whohad beenburiedalive.It turnsout thatafterthe ashcovered thepeople whofailed toflee the city,their bodiesnearly completelybroke downanddisappeared,leaving emptyspaces intheash.Years later,researchers wereable touse theseemptyspaces toproduce true-to-life figuresofthepeoplewhohad diedinthedisaster.You cansee themtodayin Pompeii,inthesame placeswhere thepeople fell.The volcanois stillthere,but looksvery quietnow.Its hardto imaginehow thispeaceful volcanodestroyed thewhole city!Day10,24JulyFinally,we arrivedin Loulanafter severaldays oftravelling.This commercialcitywasbusy andwealthyabout2,000yearsago.It wasa stoppingpoint onthe famousSilk Roadbetween theEast andtheWest.It isbelieved tohavebeengradually coveredover bysandstorms formAD200to AD400,1am soexcitedtobehere!Day11,25JulyA scholarfromthelocal culturalinstitute,Professor Zhang,told usthat aroundthe year1900theEuropean explorerSven Hedindiscovered the ruins ofthe LoulanKingdom.Sven foundthe remainsofbuildings buriedbeneath thesand,together witha lotof treasuresincluding coins,painted pots,materialsuch assilk,documents andwallpaintings.When wewenttothe city,we sawthecitywalls,palaces,temples,workshops andtowers.We foundtheruinsmost interesting.There wasan ancientwater systemthatran throughthemiddleofthecity.The desertwas oncea greenland withhuge trees,but theywerecut downand thatresulted inthecitybeing buriedby sandwhata pity!
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3.Project1Ancient Greekstatue found in Xinjiang一Researchers announcedthe discoveryofasmall statuein northern Xinjiang,China,recently.Themetal statueis ofa Greek soldier.When askedhow astatue fromdistant Greececould haveappeared inChina,researchers explainedthat nodoubt thiswasaresult ofAlexander theGreats influence.Alexander theGreat356-323BC wasthe sonofaGreek kingwho defeatedmany Greekcities inbattle.At theage oftwenty,Alexander himselfbecame kingafter hisfather died.However,many citiesroseup againstAlexander,so heled anarmy totake themback.Though his army hadonly3,000troops,he wonevery battleand manyenemy soldiersjoined him.In334BC,he tookhisarmy,now with42,000men,intotheMiddle Eastand thenEgypt,defeatingevery armythat stoodin hispath.Then heturned hiseyes east,and marchedall theway toIndia,findingvictory whereverhe went.It seemed that nothingcould stophim fromtaking controloftheentire world.However,his ownarmy grewtired ofendless battlesand refusedto goany further,so hehad toturn back.By theageofthirty,hehadalready occupiedmore landthan anyonebefore,anditseemedthatmoreglory waswaiting aheadof him.Yet,in323BC,he camedown witha feverand died.Since hehad noson,his generalsdivided hisvast kingdomamong themselves.Alexander theGreat spreadthe Greekculture fromEurope toAfrica andAsia,influencing theworldfor centuriestocome.The statueofthe GreeksoldierfoundinnorthernXinjiangprobably cametoChina inthe4th centuryBC asaresultof trade.Like manyother ancientobjects thatshow aGreekinfluence,it cannow beseen ina museumin Urumqi.
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3.Project2The fatherof Westernphilosophy一The worldphilosophy meanslove ofwisdom*.Philosophy canbe thoughtof asa way of lookingattheworldaround us,or ofanswering thegreat questionsof life,suchasWhy arewe here1and WhatistruthThe fatherof WesternPhilosophy wasSocrates469-399BC.Socrates wasfrom Athens,in Greece.When hewasyoung,hewasa bravesoldier.Later,he becamea teacher,but hetaught forfree andearnedhis salaryfrom beinga commonworker.Aside fromthis,we know very little about him.Since heneverwrote abook,we alsoknowverylittleabouthis philosophy.Yet,Socrates hashadadeep influenceonWestern thoughtand science.To understand how thiscanbetrue,we mustunderstandhowSocrates taught.Socrates taughtbyasking questions.Through this,he challengedhis studentsto developand explaintheir ownarguments.In manycases,his questionsmade hisstudents awareof theirown eirors.Many studentsgot embarrassedandeven angrywhen thishappened,while otherschanged theiropinions.Socrates*wayofapproachingthe truthis nowcalled theSocratic Method.The ideaof askingquestions untilyou reachthe rightansweris thebasis ofmodern philosophyand science.Unfortunately forhim,Socrates questionedtoo much.He alwaysasked challengingquestions toeveryonehe met,upsetting manypeople inAthens.Finally,some peoplehad hadenough ofhim,so theytookhim tocourt forquestioning theexistence oftheGreekgods andfor corruptingthe youngpeople ofAthens.At histrial,he defendedhimself byasking hisjudges yetmore questions.This justmade abadsituation worse.Finally hewas putto deathby beingforced todrink poison.Through hisdeath,Socratesbecame thehero ofall peoplewho searchforthetruth.。